HARVARD UNIVERSITY LIBRARY OF THE Museum of Comparative Zoology mi C6MP. ZOOL. APR 1 1954 HARVARD UNIVERSITY Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology AT HARVARD COLLEGE. Vol. 108 CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS Keys to the Living and Extinct Families of Insects, and to the Living Families of Other Terrestrial Arthropods BY Charles T. Brues Professor of Entomology, Emeritus, Honorary Curator of Parasitic Hymenoptera, Harvard University A. L. Melander Professor of Biology, Emeritus, College of the City of New Yorf^ AND Frank M. Carpenter Professor of Entomology, Alexander Agassiz Professor of Zoology, Curator of Fossil Insects, Harvard University CAMBRIDGE, MASS., U. S. A. PRINTED FOR THE MUSEUM 1954 Copyright 1932 By Charles T. Brues and A. L. Melander Copyright 1954 By Charles T. Brues, A. L. Melander and Frank M. Carpenter Published March, 1954 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface to the First Edition 1 Preface to the Revised Edidon 4 Introducdon 6 PART I Keys to Recent Insecta Conspectus of the Higher Groups of Insects 17 Classes of Arthropoda 26 Orders of Insects 28 Protura 42 Thysanura 44 Entotrophi 47 Collembola 50 Plectoptera 55 Odonata 62 Plecoptera /3 Blattaria 77 Orthoptera 83 Dermaptera 112 Embiodea H9 Isoptera 121 Corrodenda 123 Zoraptera 130 Mallophaga 131 Thysanoptera 135 Hemiptera 140 Anoplura 202 Neuroptera 204 Mecoptera 214 Trichoptera 216 Lepidoptera 226 Diptera 305 Siphonaptera • 538 Coleoptera 543 Strepsiptera 618 Hymenoptera 621 IV CONTENTS PART II Keys to Recent Families of Other Terrestrial Arthropoda Conspectus of the Higher Groups 687 Onychophora 690 Crustacea, Isopoda 692 Arachnida 693 Microthelyphonida 697 Pedipalpida 698 Ricinulei 700 Scorpionida 701 Solpugida 705 Chelonethida 707 Phalangida 711 Araneida 716 Acarina 733 Pentastomida 750 Tardigrada 753 Pauropoda 755 Diplopoda 756 Chilopoda 770 Symphyla 774 PART III Keys to Extinct Families of Insecta Introduction to Extinct Families of Insects 777 Conspectus of the Extinct Families of Insects 780 Key to Extinct Orders 783 Palaeodictyoptera 784 Protephemerida 786 Megasecoptera 786 Protodonata 789 Protohemiptera 790 Protoperlaria 792 Protorthoptera 792 Caloneurodea 796 Glosselytrodea 797 Protelytroptera 797 Collembola 801 Entotrophi 801 CONTENTS V Thysanura 801 Plectoptera 802 Odonata 803 Plecoptera 805 Blattaria 805 Orthoptera 807 Dermaptera 809 Embiodea 809 Isoptera . 810 Corrodentia 810 Thysanoptera 812 Hemiptera 812 Anoplura 816 Neuroptera 816 Mecoptera 819 Trichoptera 821 Lepidoptera 821 Diptera 822 Siphonaptera 824 Coleoptera 824 Strepsiptera 825 Hymenoptera 826 PART IV Glossary 829 Index .... 841 PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION Due to the great abundance and diversity of insects their taxonomy presents many difficulties and complexities. Classification is consequently a discouraging aspect of entomology to the young student who must attempt in a short space of time to gain a sufficient knowledge of rela- tionships that may enable him to recognize the more common and important types of insect life. Long teaching experience has served clearly to demonstrate to the authors that the fundamental principles of classification cannot be fully appreciated through the study of descriptive text-books, nor can any comprehension of the infinite variety of nature be acquired except by close observational contact with the things themselves. Moreover, the study of a few selected types by the laboratory method fails to give more than a very superficial view of the organic world, and as biological knowledge advances, tends to emphasize the similarities between ani- mals and to minimize the differences that exist between them. It is, therefore, highly desirable that the principles of taxonomy be presented to the student in a practical way to demonstrate particularly certain of its more fundamental and important phases. The present volume is the outcome of a series of steps, developed by the authors during the course of many years to train students in the practical taxonomy of insects and to provide a manual for the identifi- cation of the larger groups of insects; one which would prove useful and reliable in the hands of professional entomologists and other per- sons, especially biologists working in other fields, for the actual identifica- tion of specimens of insects. The precursor of the present manual was published by the authors in 1915 and printed privately as a "Key to the Families of North Ameri- can Insects." It has proved to be very useful and workable in the teaching laboratory both by ourselves and others and has, we believe, proved to be a valuable aid to entomologists and other interested persons who have occasion to identify specimens of insects. We have regretted the geo- graphical limitations of the original book which have made it less useful to workers in other parts of the world, and also the almost entire omission of aids for the identification of the immature stages. The lack of lists of literature was also recognized as a fault as well as the omission of keys which would serve to identify specimens of the various other terrestrial arthropods which are frequently collected by those interested in insects. The new volume has, therefore, been entirely rewritten to include the families of the entire world, and in many cases subfamilies of the larger or more important groups. A selected list of literature on the several groups has been added, and so far as possible, keys for the 2 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology identification of the immature stages. We have also prepared an addi- tional part dealing with the numerous other groups of terrestrial Arthropoda. The keys aim to reproduce as accurately as possible the most generally accepted system of classification of each group. They are necessarily to some extent heterogeneous as they represent the accumulated opinions and revisions of hundreds of workers during the course of many decades. Taxonomy is the oldest branch of biological science and as it has in the past had many more devotees than the recently developed branches, it has a much more complex background. The present treatment can in no sense be considered as original, nor does it follow in detail any previ- ous comprehensive system. There are numerous changes from the ar- rangement in our previous book, although this has served in a general way, more closely in some groups than others, as a model for the present one. In a few groups where recent extensive revisions have been pub- lished, these have been quite generally followed. In others, where there is considerable disagreement among authorities, we have attempted so far as possible to present what seems to be the most generally acceptable classification or the one which appears to be most rational. The arrange- ment of the Hymenoptera and Diptera represents mainly our own view- point, and this is to some extent true of the Coleoptera. The systems followed in certain other groups are indicated from time to time in the text. Where recent monographs of certain groups have appeared, the classification there proposed has been accepted with few changes, al- though we have by no means made it a rule to regard the newest arrange- ment as the most satisfactory. The illustrations have been derived from many sources and are in great part redrawn from published figures, although it must be stated that many have been simplified, differently lettered or otherwise modi- fied to adapt them to the purpose of the present manual. In each case, where not original, the source of each is indicated by the name of the author in parentheses. Most of the figures from our previous book are reproduced here. They were drawn mainly by Beirne Barrett Brues, the wife of one of the authors. To these have been added an extensive series prepared by Anna Scholl O'Connor, a considerable number by Selina Tetzlaff John- son, and a few by others, including the writers. The figures have been selected principally to represent the general appearance of the species of the various groups and the special structures used in classification. The marking of accents and the indications for the proper pronuncia- tion of the names of genera, families and higher groups has been done in great part by Alice M. Brues, daughter of one of the authors. The manuscript was transferred into typewritten form chiefly by Mrs. O'Connor who has also aided greatly in the reading of the proof and preparation of the index. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 3 For advice and criticism on numerous occasions we are greatly in- debted to a number of friends and co-workers, as well as to several students, especially Mr. R. P. Dow, who was of great assistance in the preparation of the section on Hymenoptera. Professor W. M. Wheeler has examined the section on ants, but far more, has offered encouragement and criticism during the tedious process of preparation. Finally, we are deeply grateful to Dr. Thomas Barbour for issuing the volume as a contribution from the Museum of Comparative Zoology. No one is more keenly aware than the writers of the great chance that errors of statement or omission may creep into a work of this kind. We have diligently guarded against the occurrence of such errors during the course of preparation, but for any that may remain we trust that we may be forgiven. PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION Two decades have passed since the first edition of the present work was written. During this time many contributions dealing with the taxonomy of insects have been published. These include some mono- graphic treatments of families and larger groups, in addition to a really vast series of shorter, less comprehensive papers relating to smaller groups or to the faunas of more restricted areas. In several orders the system of classification currently in general use differs but little, or scarcely at all, from that presented in the earlier volume. In others, more recent treatments differ very considerably from those most commonly followed by the majority of taxonomists twenty years ago. In such cases extensive revision of the keys has been made, but in frequent instances {e.g. Acarina) we have not taken it for granted that the newest arrangement is the most satisfactory, or that it will come into general use, and we have not adopted all such innovations. During recent years a few taxonomists have proposed an extensive multiplication of family names in some groups, like the Suborder Adephaga among the Coleoptera, and in the Acarina and Diplopoda among the other terrestrial Arthropoda treated in the third part of the present volume. This degradation of the family concept is utterly at variance with accepted practice in other orders and has not been in- corporated in the keys. Such family names have been included to some extent in the text in order to indicate their taxonomic position. A new section, dealing with extinct families of insects, has been in- cluded in the revised edition. The purpose of this part is to indicate the extent and nature of the extinct orders and families and to show the pattern of classification currently followed. A discussion of some of the problems involved in the taxonomy of the extinct groups intro- duces that section. We are greatly indebted to Professor Charles L. Remington for his aid in revising the keys to the Thysanura and Entotrophi, and especially for his efforts on the Lepidoptera, including the preparation of a new larval key. Dr. Kenneth Christiansen has revised the keys to the Collembola, on which a great deal has been published in recent years. In addition to these colleagues and those who furthered the prepara- tion of the earlier edition, we wish to extend our grateful appreciation to all who have aided in the accomplishment of its present ordysis. It now emerges with an increase in length of the order of ~^/2, approxi- mately that of a typical insect as it passes into a succeeding instar during growth. This is, of course, entirely coincidental, but as most of the increased length of the new volume is due to newly accumulated refer- ences in the literature and to a sound advance in insect palaeontology, it CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 5 reflects in a sense the growth of entomological publication during twenty years. At this rate it is appalling to anticipate what the future may hold for systematic entomology. The American Philosophical Society has supported the preparation of this revision by a grant which has expedited the completion of the manuscript. Finally, we are indebted to Miss Ruth C. Dunn, whose judgment and accuracy in checking references and other details, in typing most of our manuscript, and in the performance of difficult editorial work has continuously furthered the completion of our task. INTRODUCTION Approximately three-fourths of a million species of insects have so far been described and named, and their number is being gradually increased from year to year. So far as those competent to judge are able to esti- mate, it seems probable that this number represents perhaps one-fifth or one-tenth of those which actually exist upon our planet at the present time. Their descriptions fill libraries and their final identification re- quires the knowledge of specialists. Obviously no single volume can provide means for their complete determination, and attempts to deal with selected series of abundant species from particular regions are always disappointing and untrustworthy. It is possible to deal quite fully with the families into which the insects are divided within a reason- able space and it is with their recognition that the present work is con- cerned. Identification of the families has been effected by means of analytical keys, which have been arranged as dichotomies. There are also pro- vided similar keys, first for the determination of the classes of Arthro- poda, and later others for the determination of the orders of each class. The families are then tabulated under each order. Unless the class or order is known, the student should, therefore, first consult the "Key to Classes of Arthropoda" on page 26. If it be known that the speci- men is an insect or an arachnid, or that it surely belongs to a particular class or order, the appropriate key (as indicated in the "Table of Con- tents") will form the starting point for the work of identification. Each key contains a number of couplets, or pairs of contrasting state- ments which indicate clearly two characters or groups of characters, one of which will agree with the specimen in hand. In the first couplet, for example, two contrasting descriptions are given, one of which should agree with the insect to be determined. The number at the end of the line following this description indicates the couplet which should next be studied, and so on until the final name is reached. All the keys have been arranged in this way, as the writers' experience in the classroom shows that specimens can be most easily, rapidly and accurately classi- fied with a key of this type where the contrasting descriptions appear together on the page and may very easily be compared. Another type of identification key has the pairs of contrasting charac- ters distinguished from other pairs by differences of indention on the page. Keys thus arranged can be constructed to follow natural rela- tionships more closely, but they require much more space for printing and in long keys are exceedingly difficult to follow. We have, therefore, not adopted such an arrangement. While the dichotomies frequently represent natural relationships or CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 7 lines of phyletic development, we have not attempted to indicate natural divisions wherever the convenience and practical arrangement of the keys would have been sacrificed. It is at best not convenient to express the natural relationships of animals or plants by any linear arrangement. It may be said, however, that a carefully arranged dichotomy, in most cases, may be made to conform quite closely to such linear arrangement as may seem most appropriate. The keys present, therefore, to some extent an artificial, as opposed to a natural, sequence, although wherever possible a natural order has been retained. The conspectus of families, on the other hand, aims to present a natural classification as nearly as this can be expressed by a linear sequence. As a linear arrangement is the only one which can be used in a list of this sort, it must be understood that it cannot actually indicate the relationship of the several units by their proximity in the list. We must regard the present fauna as representing a horizontal section of the "phyletic tree" which we see only as a multitudinous series of sections through its twigs and branchlets. The linear arrange- ment of such a complex cannot even suggest the equally irregular branches to which these twigs were attached in the past. Many of the latter represent extinct groups, and these are far less completely known. They are dealt with separately in a section devoted entirely to a con- sideration of the families and higher groups that are no longer extant in the living fauna. Knowledge of insect palaeontology has advanced rapidly during recent years, but it is necessarily less complete than that relating to living insects and must always remain so. It has greatly im- proved our insight into the interrelationship of major and minor groups and is destined to clarify our views still further in the future. There is a very pronounced tendency continually to restrict the ex- tent of families and consequently increase their number. This is greatly deplored by many zoologists, and regarded as inevitable, if not highly undesirable, by others. The reasons for such a change are manifold. The continual discovery of new forms rapidly increases the number of known species and this in itself merely on the basis of numbers makes it easier to deal with classification if we have a greater number of units of convenient size. The more careful study of anatomical structure fre- quently leads to the discovery that certain groups are polyphyletic, that is to say, are not of common origin, but represent a convergence or parallelism in the possession of certain closely similar characteristics. If we are to develop a natural classification, such groups must, of course, be divided into a number of smaller families, each easily distinguishable from the others, in fact, more easily characterized than the original large family. Such changes are reasonable and will without doubt be accept- able in the future to all who view them without prejudice. Many such changes represent merely the elevating of groups from subfamily to family rank, and they have been made much more extensively by work- 8 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology ers in some groups than in others. For this reason, if for no other, the value of family rank varies in the several groups. There is another reason for such differences which relates to the age of the several groups. Those of greater evolutionary age usually present more constant, clear- cut characters and can be grouped into smaller numbers of families while those now in an active state of evolution or differentiation show so many permutations and intergrades that the value of the family has been cheapened and numerous very closely related series have been accorded family rank. As already indicated we have endeavored to follow the general custom of workers in each group in regard to the number of families that should be recognized at the present time. The characters useful for the separation of family and other major groups are frequently of very minor nature, due to the fact that char- acteristics of apparently trivial importance commonly persist over long periods of time, presumably because they are not acted upon by natural selection or other evolutionary factors. The value of such characters is everywhere evident, but in the keys many correlated characters of more noticeable and conspicuous kinds have been added, even though, as indicated, they are not invariably present, and cannot be relied on implicitly. When in the keys such correlation characters are encoun- tered, there is need for judgment in deciding which way to proceed. Any ideal system of classification should be in accordance with the phylogenetic changes that have occurred during the evolution of the organisms concerned. The importance of this goal is paramount and the efforts of taxonomists to reach it are leading to the gradual dis- appearance of artificiality in systematics. This is a real advance, but in recent years some taxonomists have assumed, usually for what appear to be good reasons, that definite differential characters cannot be found to distinguish forms which are similar but not genetically related in their phylogeny. When such assumptions are tacitly accepted in the absence of observable differences, it is impossible to translate these conceptions into understandable form for use by others. This is seen frequently in keys where exceptions must be noted, and it presents great, if not insurmount- able, difficulties in the practical construction of keys. From a theoretical standpoint, artificial characters are in final analysis only a snare and delusion, but we cannot discard them till better substitutes can be made available. In the keys presented in this volume we have tried to by-pass such dilemmas, but not with complete satisfaction. As families and other major groups, as well as genera, are concepts and not precepts they are constantly at the mercy of a changing view- point and the characters used to define their limits are valid only as accepted by present students. It is hence impossible to standardize the family concept. There are isolated instances where highly specialized students of certain groups have gone literally rampant and have made excessive additions to the number of family designations. Such proce- CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 9 dure creates a most unfortunate diversity in the general pattern of classi- fication as it is widely at variance with the views held by other workers in the same or related fields. In some cases where such extravagant changes have been proposed these have been indicated by notations or more lengthy explanations interpolated in the text of the keys. Even the selection of family names is not done in a uniform way by all entomologists. This is very unfortunate as it leads to the use in some cases of several names for the same group. Thus the family name may be formed from the oldest contained genus, or it may represent the oldest usage, or it may be still another name long in use, but originally formed by neither of the first two methods. We have not been entirely consistent in the selection of these family designations, but have tried to follow the most general present usage in each group. Synonyms that are or have been in general use are given in italic capital letters placed in parentheses just preceding the accepted family names in the keys. If uniformity is ever secured in the use of family names, there will be a number of changes in the ones here used, and the citation of synonyms here must consequently be understood to indicate that there is or has recently been a division in usage. Wherever a family name has been suppressed and the group which it designates has been merged with an- other, the word "Including" has been added in the parenthesis together with the name thus suppressed. Over a considerable period of years a sustained effort has been made to secure uniformity in zoological nomenclature. This has been effected through the agency of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, inaugurated and fostered by numerous zoological soci- eties throughout the world. Competing organizations have been estab- lished, but their influence has remained at a lower level. The efforts of the International Commission have been applied to priority in nomen- clature, validity and dates of publication, homonyms, synonyms, types of families and genera and a host of other matters that enter into nomen- clatural practice. The sincere efforts of the Commission have met numerous obstacles imposed by recalcitrant individuals and groups of taxonomists who, like all workers in the natural sciences, are loath to accept ex-cathedral pronouncements emanating from any source. This, coupled with the discovery of old, long-forgotten taxonomic papers whose contents reveal the necessity of changes in generic and family names has caused a serious confusion which does not quickly subside. More recently the resurrection of previously discarded names where these cannot be validated by accepted rules, has aroused further opposition. It is not possible to predict the outcome, but fortunately these matters are of minor import in the present volume since we have consistently tried to reflect current usage in each group, and to cite also any alternate designa- tions that are frequently encountered in the literature. The International Zoological Commission was established to stabilize 10 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology nomenclature, but because of the difficulty of arriving at decisions in some instances it has permitted uncertainty to prevail. Notably is this apparent in the case of Meigen's 1800 paper, 1 which affects the families of various Diptera. Meigen wrote this early paper in French for the use of amateur entomologists, noting the names of eighty-eight genera he knew, many of which he coined for the occasion. The names were accom- panied by an extremely brief description, but nowhere were species cited by name; merely the number of species was announced as known to Meigen. Three years later he published a generic account of one hundred and fourteen genera, 2 this time in German, changing the names of many of the previous genera. These two papers become particularly important to us in that many of the cited names are the type-genera of families or subfamilies. Meigen himself made no reference to his first paper in any of his later writings. The early work became forgotten. Only five or six copies are now known to exist. However, one copy fell into the hands of Friedrich Hendel, who reprinted it, and with the aid of Meigen's 1803 paper, resurrected many of the earlier and discarded names. Hendel's publica- tion started a series of protests among systematic dipterists, many of whom felt that the principle of conservation should prevent a wholesale adoption of names, latent for more than a century. J. M. Aldrich re- ferred the matter to the International Commission on Nomenclature, which in a series of Opinions has ruled that the 1800 paper was actually published, that both were written by J. W. Meigen, that the names pro- posed were binomial and hence valid, and that it was for dipterists them- selves to pass upon their recognition. However, the adoption of some of the names in the 1800 paper will not settle the issue. Already the Com- mission is considering the abandonment of five of Meigen's early names, of which four are the types of families. To show that great uncertainty exists we have cited those families which would date from the 1800 paper, together with the customarily used name, giving both in bold-face type. 3 1 J. G. Meigen. Nouvelle classification des mouches a deux ailes. 40 pp. Paris (1800). 2 J. W. Meigen. Versuch einer neuen Gattungseintheilung der europaischen zweifliigligen Insekten. Illiger's Magazin, 2, pp. 259-281 (1803). 8 The families involved are the following, the first name of each pair derived from type genera of Meigen's 1800 paper, the second from his 1803 paper. Three of the names (Simuliidae, Scenopinida? and Pipunculidz) date from Latreille's Histoire Naturelle, 1802. Liriopeidae, Ptychopterida;; Tendipedidae, Chironomida;; Heleidae, Ceratopogonidae; Melusinidae, Simuliidae; Fungivoridae, Mycetophilidae; Euphrosynidae, Macroceridae; Lycoriidae, Sciaridse; Itonididae, Cecidomyiidz; Erinnidae, Xylophagidae; Omphralidae, Scenopinidar, Musidoridae, Lonchopterid.-c; Clythiidae, Platypezidae; Dorilaidae, Pipuncu- lidae; Larvae voridae, Tachinidae; Euribiidae, Trypetidae; Titaniidae, Chloropidae. This list does not include fourteen subfamilies nor ten genera which are not types of families. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 11 A short, selected list of genera is given for most families. These repre- sent large or important genera, those characteristic of particular regions or those containing common or important species. In most cases the geo- graphical range is given in greatly abbreviated form. The following abbreviations have been used, all of which should be easily understood without explanation: cosmop., cosmopolitan; tropicopol., tropicopolitan; Holarc, Holarctic (northern hemisphere); Palmare, Palaearctic (Europe and northern Asia); Nearc, Nearctic (America, north of Mexico); Neo- trop., Neotropical (America, south of the United States); Am., new world; Ethiop., Ethiopian (Africa, south of the Sahara); Ind., India; Indomal., Indomalayan (India and east Indian Islands); Austr., Aus- tralian. A few variants of these, as Indoaustr. and Malay., need no ex- planation. Where genera occur in most of the regions named or in several widely separated ones, their range is indicated as widespr., wide- spread. A number of vernacular names for common or important species or groups are given from place to place, enclosed in parentheses. These are mainly ones that are actually in use among persons not acquainted with entomology, although certain others that have been adopted by the American Association of Economic Entomologists as designations for specific insects are listed also. However, no attempt has been made to include a great many that are newly coined, cumbersome, or other- wise of such origin or formation that they may never be expected to come into general popular use as vernacular names. In addition to the keys to families we have added a considerable number of keys which serve to distinguish the subfamilies of many of the more important or extensive families. These are printed in more condensed form than the family keys and the couplets are numbered a, b, c, etc. to distinguish them from the main keys in which they are inserted next to the family to which they pertain. Thus, although in- serted directly into the family keys they remain entirely independent so far as couplet numbers are concerned. In all cases we have endeavored to cite the family names in exact form. Family names are by rule formed by adding the suffix "idae" to the Latin or Latinized stem of the name of the type genus, and sub- families uniformly end in "inae." The compound when thus formed should properly include all of the stem. Unless attention is given to the declension of such words according to Latin rules, errors may occur and unfortunately a few incorrectly formed family names have been used from time to time in publications, sometimes over long periods. We have attempted to correct all such errors of orthography, and trust that we have not overlooked any others. Thus family names based on generic names ending in -cera or -cerus become -ceridce; in -ceros become -cero- tidce, etc. The names of superfamilies have been consistently treated in a similar way, by adding -oidea to the Latin stem of the name of the type 12 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology genus of the typical family name. No fixed rule is generally accepted for the formation of group names and we have not always corrected the spelling of such names. Whether well established names should be emended is certainly open to question on the basis of long usage. The pronunciation of all family, group and generic names is indicated in the text, following a very simple and quite satisfactory method which was apparently first used by Asa Gray in 1848 in the first edition of his "Text Book of Botany." Later revisions of Gray's manual have continued the same method but for some reason it has not been very generally adopted by others. An accent mark is placed over the vowel in the accented syllable, thus indicating whether the accent should be placed on the penultimate or antepenultimate syllable. A long vowel is indicated by a grave accent (e.g. e, £) and a short vowel by an acute accent (e.g. e, £). Thus with the length of the important vowel and the accent indicated, the word may be pronounced with small chance of error. Usage is not consistent in the pronunciation of the character "oi" which occurs in the names of superfamilies, etc. We are advocating the sound given to the diphthong in the word "coin," rather than the pronuncia- tion of the two vowels separately. The difficulty of indicating this by means of accented type has led us to mark the diphthong oi with a grave accent over the "o," thus: oi, Cl. As the names are regarded as Latin, the rules for the pronunciation of Latin words are followed, although most generic and family names are actually of Greek derivation. Many new Latin words or those of non-classical origin have to be treated by analogy, for example, those based on the names of entomologists (Winthemia, after Winthem, Meigenia, after Meigen). In some cases, where names do not readily lend themselves to Latin pronunciation, none is indicated. One of the authors has already dealt at some length with the rules governing the pronunciation of insect names. 4 A selected list of literature on the classification of insects and the other arthropods dealt with in the present volume is included in the text. This is intended to introduce the student to the taxonomic literature as completely as is possible in the space which could be devoted to that purpose and since the amount of published material is enormous, only those papers which may be most generally useful have been cited. Dur- ing the past thirty years, approximately 100,000 separate publications on pure entomology have been issued, by far the greater part of these deal- ing with taxonomy. Many other earlier monographs and synopses have not yet been supplanted, either wholly or in part by more recent studies. * A. L. Melander. The Pronunciation of Insect Names. Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc, 11, pp. 93-101 (1916); Sourcebook of Biological Terms. Coll. City of New York, 157 pp. (1937). See also: E. C. Jaeger. Source-book of Biological Names and Terms. C. C. Thomas, 256 pp. (1944); R. S. Woods. Naturalist's Lexicon. Abbey Garden Press, 282 pp. (1944). CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 13 It has, therefore, not been an easy task to determine exactly what ought to be included in such a list. In general we have listed monographs, revisions or synopses of families and larger groups, relating to the fauna of the whole world, or to extensive regions. Often such treatments relat- ing to quite restricted areas are cited where the circumstances seem to warrant their inclusion. Similar publications relating to subfamilies or smaller groups in some cases appear in the lists also where the abundance or importance of the groups concerned render them of special interest. Large works relating to the faunas of extensive regions are included and to some extent the parts of such works are listed separately under the several groups for more ready reference. In general, papers of less than ten pages have not been included. Catalogues and bibliographies are cited rather extensively as they serve to introduce the student to the smaller, highly specialized papers which he will find it necessary to consult for the serious study of any particular group. The literature of some of the larger orders like the Coleoptera, Lepidoptera and Diptera has been more frequently listed than that of the other groups and here we have generally restricted the citations to the most useful works, catalogues, bibliographies and those containing keys for the identification of genera and species. Almost no references to papers containing only scattered descriptions or very incomplete syn- opses are included since these will be found by an examination of the catalogues and specialized bibliographies. In many instances long titles have been abbreviated or paraphrased to save space and to render the scanning of the lists easier, but we have tried in all cases to do this in such a way as not to interfere with the usefulness of the lists, for the present purpose. The references are given with sufficient completeness to insure the ready location of each paper. Several languages are necessarily represented, although nearly all of the papers cited are in one of the widely used languages, i.e. English, German, French, Italian, Latin, Spanish or Portuguese. The language of the individual papers may be ascertained from the titles, which al- though abbreviated are usually given in the language used by the author. The literature relating to each order is inserted at the end of the keys of that order. In the case of the larger orders, general references are placed together, followed by other lists relating to superfamilies or other groups as indicated in each case, and every individual list is arranged in alphabetical order by authors. The more general works relating to more than a single order, are placed at the end of the key to the Orders of Insects on page 38. The literature relating to the Arachnida and other groups of terrestrial arthropods is arranged in a similar way, in parts following the several keys. It is impossible to avoid the use of highly technical terms, but we have reduced their number as greatly as clarity permits. A special glos- sary will be found on page 829, containing definitions of such special 14 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology terms as are not defined in the text or by reference to figures, or of those that cannot be readily understood by the use of a good dictionary. The nomenclature applied to the body parts, wings, veins, etc., is that used generally in the literature, and represents the current usage in each group. Until quite recently the workers in nearly every group of insects made use of special terminologies for the wing-veins but within the last several decades a more or less uniform system of nomenclature is coming into use. This change has been adopted in the present book as representing the most rational method. In the order Hymenoptera this system is cumbersome and confusing and the current empirical system in use by students of this order has been adopted. The student will, however, encounter some difficulties in consulting the older, and even some of the more recent, treatises and papers. Unfortunately this change is one that cannot be avoided. The equipment necessary for the identification of specimens of insects is quite simple and inexpensive, at least that required for the study of the larger species. Extremely small forms present greater difficulties on account of the very minute size of the structures which must be examined. For species of moderate or large size, all that is necessary to observe most structural details is a good hand lens. This should be preferably one having a rating of 12x or 14x magnification. Several types of such lenses are made. The best, known as an achromatic triplet, which gives a clear, sharp image, is made of three lenses cemented together into a single piece. Such a lens may be purchased for about ten or twelve dollars, or a pair, giving 8x and 12x magnification respectively, mounted in a single holder for about fifteen dollars. Cheaper types, known as Coddingtons or doublets may be purchased at much lower prices, but their optical properties are comparatively poor and they are very unsat- isfactory, except for examining large or very flat structures. For small insects and for others as well, a binocular microscope is the most satis- factory. Such an instrument, provided with two or three paired objec- tives and two pairs of eyepieces made by any of several first class manu- facturers may be purchased for $250 or slightly more. As a rule no special method of preparation is necessary since most of the characters made use of in the keys are readily observed on dried pinned specimens. However, in a few cases some previous treatment is necessary. The wings of Lepidoptera must usually be freed from their scaly covering before the venation can be made out. For this, they may be soaked in eau de Javelle, or some commercial chlorinated bleach sold for laundry use, to loosen the scales which may then be removed by a camel's hair brush, after which they may be dehydrated, cleared and mounted in balsam or varnish, on slides. Certain small insects such as Thysanoptera may also be mounted very satisfactorily on slides in balsam or spar varnish, preferably the latter as it does not clear transparent structures so completely. Scale insects should be boiled in a solution of CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 15 caustic potash, washed, dehydrated, cleared and mounted in the same way to show the minute structures upon which these insects are classified. Minute Diptera should be mounted on "double mounts," i.e. a blotter 5x8 mm. carries a minuten nadel at one end and a #1 insect pin at the other. The blotter is coated with clear white shellac varnish to fuse the pins. For the methods of collecting, preparing and preserving insects the reader is referred to Dr. H. H. Ross' "How to Collect and Preserve Insects" (Illinois Nat. Hist. Surv. Circ, no. 39, pp. 1-55, figs. 1-63; 1944) or similar publications. Special collecting techniques are discussed in detail in Banks' "Directions for Collecting and Preserving Insects" (Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., no. 67, pp. 1-135, figs. 1-188; 1909). Instruc- tions for the preparation of chitinous structures for study are contained in Lee's "Microtomist's Vade-Mecum" (Blakiston and Co., 11th edit., 1950), as well as in other less inclusive and pretentious works. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 17 Part I INSECTA CONSPECTUS OF THE HIGHER GROUPS OF INSECTA Subclass APTERYGOTA Order PROTURA (Eosentomidae, Acerentomidae, Protentomidae) Order THYSANURA Machiloidea (Machilidae, Meinertellidae) Lepismatoidea (Nicoletiidse, Lepismatidae) Order ENTOTROPHI Campodeoidea (Campodeidae) Japygoidea (Japygidae, Projapygidae) Order COLLEMBOLA Suborder Arthropleona (Hypogastruridae, Entomobryidae, Actaleddae, Tomoceridae, Isotomidae, Poduridae, Oncopoduridae) Suborder Symphypleona (Sminthuridae, Dicyrtomidae, Neelidae) Subclass PTERYGOTA Order PLECTOPTERA Ephemeroidea (Palingeniidae, Polymitarcidae, Ephemeridae, Pota- manthidae, Prosopistomatidae) Baetoidea (Baetidae, Caenidae, Leptophlebiidae, Ephemerellidac, Oligoneuridae) Siphluroidea (Baetiscida% Siphluridae, Ametropodidae, Heptagenii- dae) Order ODONATA Suborder Zygoptera Coenagrionoidea (Protoneuridae, Coenagrionidae, Synlestidae, Mega- podagrionidae, Lesddas, Pseudosdgmaddae, Lestoideidae, Platysdcti- dae, Platycnemididae) Agrionoidea (Amphipterygidae, Chlorocyphidae, Epallagidae, Poly- dioridae, Agrionidae, Heliochariddae) Hemiphlebioidea (Hemiphlebiidae) Suborder Anisozygoptera Epiophlebioidea (Epiophlebiidae) Suborder Anisoptera jEshnoidea (Petaluridae, Gomphidae, Cordulegastridae, ^shnidse) Libelluloidea (Corduliidae, Libellulidae) Order PLECOPTERA (Perlidae, Pteronarcidae, Eustheniidae, Austroperlidae, Peltoperlidae, Leptoperlidae, Capniidae, Nemouridae, Leuctridae, Taeniopterygi- dae) 18 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Order BLATTARIA Phyllodromioidea (Blaberidas, Oxyhaloidae, Panchloridae, Epilam- pridae, Nyctiboridae, Perisphaeriidae, Diplopteridae, Panesthiidae, Cryptocercidae, Phyllodromiidae, Areolariidae, Chorisoneuridae, Ectobiidae, Nothoblattida?, Attaphilidae) Blattoidea (Blattidae, Archiblattidae, Nocticolidae, Oulopterygidae) Corydioidea (Ladndiidae, Homoeogamiidae, Polyphagidae, Corydii- dae, Atticolidae, Euthyrrhaphidae) Order ORTHOPTERA Suborder Manteodea (Manteidae) Suborder Grylloblattodea (Grylloblattidae) Suborder Saltatoria Tettigonioidea (Tetdgoniidae, Gryllacridae, Gryllidse, Myrmeco- philidae, CEcanthidse, Mogoplisddae, Trigonidiidae, Eneopteridae, Stenopelmaddaj, Phasmodidae) Tridactyloidea (Gryllotalpidae, Tridactylidae, Cylindracheddae) Acridoidea (Acrididae, Tetrigidae, Proscopiidae) Pneumoroidea (Pneumoridae) Suborder Phasmatodea Phasmatoidea (Bacillidae, Phyllidae, Phasmaddae) Bacterioidea (Bacunculidae, Bacteriidae, Timemidae) Order DERMAPTERA Suborder Forficulina PROTODERMAPTERA Pygidicranoidea (Echinosomatidae, Pyragridae, Pygidicranidae, Kar- schiellidae, Anataeliidae, Diplatyidae) PARADERMAPTERA Apachyoidea (Apachyidae) Labiduroidea (Platylabiidae, Allostethidae, Esphalmenidae, Psalididae, Labiduridae, Parisolabidae, Brachylabidae) EUDERMAPTERA Labioidea (Pericomidae, Nesogastxidae, Vandicidae, Strongylopsalidi- dae, Sparatddae, Spongiphoridae, Labiidae) Forficuloidea (Chelisochidae, Cheliduridae, Anechuridae, Forficuli- dae, Eudohrniidae, Neolobophoridae, Ancistrogastridae, Opisthocos- miidae, Diaperasticidae) Suborder Arixenina (Arixeniidae) Suborder Diploglossata (Hemimeridae) Order EMBIODEA (Anisembiidae, Oligotomidae, Teratembiidae, Embiidae, Clothodidae, Oligembiidae, Notoligotomidae) Order ISOPTERA (Mastotermiddae, Calotermiddae, Termopsidae, Hodotermiddac, Rhinotermitidae, Termiddae) Order CORRODENTIA Suborder Parapsocida (Phyllipsocidae, Perientomidae, Lepidopsocidae, Psoquillidae, Atropidae, Liposcelidae, Archipsocidae) Suborder Eupsocida (Mesopsocidae, Myopsocidae, Caeciliidae, Psocidae, Amphientomidae, Thyrsophoridac) CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 19 Order ZORAPTERA (Zorotypidae) Order MALLOPHAGA Suborder Amblycera (Gyropidae, Boopiidae, Trimenoponidae, Menoponi- dae, Laemobothridae, Ricinidae, Heptapsogastridae) Suborder Ischnocera (Trichodectidae, Trichophilopteridae, Nesiotinidae, Philopteridae, Dasyonygidae) Order THYSANOPTERA Suborder Terebrantia ^Eolothripoidea (iEolothripidae, Orothripidae, Melanothripidae, Franklinothripidae, Mymarothripidae) Thripoidea (Heterothripidae, Thripidas, Panchaetothripidae, Cerato- thripidae, Merothripidae) Suborder Tubulifera Phlceothripoidea (Phloeothripidae, Ecacanthothripidae, Eupatichripi- dx, Pygothripidae, Hystrichothripidae, Megathripidae, Idolothripi- dae, Chirothripoididae) Urothripoidea (Urothripidae) Order HEMIPTERA Suborder Homoptera AUCHENORRHYNCHA Cicadoidea (Cicadidae) Membracoidea (Membracidae) Cercopoidea (Machaerotidae, Tomaspididae, Clastopteridae, Cercopi- dse) Jassoidea (Tetdgellidae, Gyponidae, Penthimiidae, Thaumastoscopi- dae, Ledridae, Bythoscopidae, Jassidae, Paropiidae, Stenocotidae, Kcebeliidae, Ulopidae, Nirvanidae, Signoretiidae, Euacanthidae, Pythamida?, ^Ethialoniidae, Macropsidae, Agalliidae) Fulgoroidea (Tettigometridae, Cixiidae, Areopodidae, Derbidae, Achilixiidae, Meenoplidae, Kinnaridae, Dictyopharidae, Fulgoridae, Achilidae, Tropiduchidse, Nogodinidae, Flatidae, Acanaloniidae, Issidae, Ricaniidae, Lophopidae, Eurybrachidae) STERNORRHYNCHA Chermoidea (Chermidae) Aleyrodoidea (Aleyrodidae) Aphidoidea (Aphididae, Eriosomaddae, Phylloxeridae, Adelgidae) Coccoidea (Ortheziidae, Monophlebidae, Diaspididas, Conchaspididae, Lecaniidae, Lacciferidae, Apiomorphidae, Asterolecaniidae, Phena- coleachiidae, Coccidae, Cylindrococcidae, Eriococcidae, Kermesidac) COLEORRHYNCHA (Peloridiid*, Pleidse) Suborder Heteroptera GYMNOCERATA Scutelleroidea (Corimelaenidae, Plataspididae, Cydnidae, Scutelleri- dae, Pentatomidae, Podopidae, Tahitocoridae) Coreoidea (Corizidae, Coreidae, Alydidae) Gerroidea (Gerridae, Veliidae) Aradoidea (Isodermidae, Aradidae, Termatophylidae, Dysodiidae. 20 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Saldidae, Thaumastotheriidae, Mesoveliidae, Hebridae, Hydrometri- das, Leodchidae) Lyceoidea (Lygaeidae, Hyocephalidae, Neididae, Colobothristidae, Pyrrhocoridae, Macroveliidae) Tingoidea (Piesmidae, Tingidae) Reduvioidea (Henicocephalidae, Phymatidae, Reduviidae, Ploiariida?, Nabidas, Joppeicidae) Polyctenoidea (Polyctenidae) Cimicoidea (Aepophilidae, Cimicidae, Velocipedidae, Anthocorida;, Miridae, Microphysidae, Isometopidae, Leptopodidae) Dipsocoroidea (Dipsocoridae, Schizopteridae) Helotrephoidea (Helotrephidae) CRYPTOCERATA (Nerthridae, Ochteridae, Naucoridsf, Nepidae, Belostomatidae, Notonectidae, Corixidae, Termitaphididae) Order ANOPLURA (Haematomyzidae, Echinophthiriidae, Haematopinida;, Haematopinoididae, Pediculidae, Phthiriidae, Neolignadiidae) Order NEUROPTERA Suborder Sialodea (Corydalidae, Sialidae) Suborder Raphidiodea (Raphidiidae, Inoceliidas) Suborder Planipennia Ithonoidea (Ithonidae) Hemerobioidea (Hemerobiidae, Sympherobiidae, Dilarids, Psychop- sidae, Osmylidae, Polystoechoddas, Sisyridae, Chrysopidae, Apoch- rysidae, Berothidae, Trichomatidae, Mantispidae) Nemopteroidea (Nemopteridae) Myrmeleontoidea (Myiodactylidae, Nymphidae, Myrmeleontidae, Sdlbopterygidae, Ascalaphidae) Coniopterygoidea (Coniopterygidae) Order MECOPTERA Suborder Protomecoptera (Nodothaumidae, Meropeidae) Suborder Eumecoptera (Panorpidae, Boreidae, Bittacidae) Order TRICHOPTERA Suborder iEquipalpia Rhyacophiloidea (Rhyacophilidae, Philopotamidae, Polycentropodi- daj, Hydropsychidae, Psychomyiidae, Xiphocentronidae, Calamo- ceratidas, Odontoceridae, Leptoceridae, Molannidae, Beraeidae) Hydroptiloidea (Hydropdlidae) Suborder Inaequipalpia Phryganoidea (Phryganeidae, Limnephilidae, Brachycentridae, Lepi- dostomaddae, Helicopsychidae, Goeridas) Sericostomatoidea (Sericostomaddae) Order LEPIDOPTERA Suborder Homoneura Micropterygoidea (Micropterygidae) Eriocranioidea (Eriocraniidae, Mnesarchaeidae, Neopseustidae) Hepialoidea (Hepialidae, Prototheoridae, Palaeosetidae) Suborder Heteroneura Division Monotrysia Nepticuloidea (Nepdculidae, Ginophilidae, Tischeriida?) CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 21 Incurvarioidea (Incurvariidae, Prodoxidae, Adelidae, Heliozelidae) Division Ditrysia Cossoidea (Cossidae) Tineoidea (Tineidae, Setomorphidae, Amydriidae, Acrolophidae, Ashinagidae, Psychidae, Plutellidae, Lyonedidae, Opostegidae, Am- phitheridae, Epermeniidae, Gracilariidae, Coleophoridae, Yponomeu- tidac, Acrolepiidae, Argyresthiidae, Cyclotornidae, Scythrididae, Douglasiidae, Elachistidae, Epimarptidae, Glyphipterygidae, Helio- dinidae, ^Egeriidae, Phyllocnistidae, Blastobasidae, Orneodidae, Anomologidae, Metachandidae, Xylorictidae, Stenomidae, Strep- simanidae, CEcophoridae, Cosmopterygidae, Cecidosetidae, Ridia- schinidae, Agonoxenidae, Hyposmocomidae, Gelechiidae) Tortricoidea (Tortricidae, Chlidanotidae, Phaloniidae, Olethreutidae, Carposinidae) Zyg^noidea (Eucleidae, Epipyropidae, Chrysopolomidae, Megalopygi- dae, Zygaenidae, Pyromorphidae, Charideidae, Heterogynidae) Castnioidea (Castniidae) Pyralidoidea (Oxychirotidae, Pterophoridae, Thyrididae, Pyralididae, Hyblaeidae) Geometroidea (Geometridae, Uraniidae, Epiplemidae, Epicopeiidae, Apoprogenidae, Sematuridae, Drepanidae, Thyatiridae, Axiidae) Calliduloidea (Callidulidae, Pterothysanidae) Bombycoidea (Mimallonidae, Ratardidae, Bombycidae, Eupterotidae, Lemoniidae, Brahmaeidae, Oxytenididae, Cerophanidae, Saturniidae, Endromididae, Lasiocampidae) Sphingoidea (Sphingidae) Noctuoidea (Noctuidae, Agarisddae, Lithosiidae, Arcdidae, Nyctemer- idae, Nolidae, Ctenuchidae, Notodonddae, Dioptidae, Lymantriidae, Anthelidae) Hesperioidea (Hesperiidae) Papilionoidea (Papilionidae, Pierididae, Lycaenidae, Riodinidae, Liby- theidae, Danaidae, Satyridae, Amathusiidae, Morphoidae, Nymphali dae) Order DIPTERA Suborder Nematocera TlPULIMORPHA Tipuloidea (Petauristidae, Tipulidae, Cylindrotomidae, Limoniidae) PSYCHOMORPHA Psychodoidea (Tanyderidae, Ptychopteridae or Liriopeidae, Psychodi- dae) Culicoidea (Corethridae, Culicidae, Dixidae) Chironomoidea or Tendipeqoidea (Chironomidae or Tendipedidae, Ceratopogonidae or Heleidae, Thaumaleidae, Simuliidae or Melusin- idae) Blepharoceroidea (Blepharoceridae, Deuterophlebiidae, Nympho- myiidae) SlLVICOLOMORPHA Silvicoloidea (SilvicolidcE, Mycetobiidae) Mycetophiloidea or Fungivoroidea (Mycetophilidae or Fungivori- 22 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology dae, Allactoneuridae, Ceropladdae, Macroceridae or Euphrosynidae, Ditomyiidae, Diadocidiidae, Bolitophilidae, Sciophilidae, Lygistor- rhinidae, Manoddae, Sciaridae or Lycoriidae) Cecidomyoidea or Itonidoidea (Cecidomyiidae or Itonididae) Bibionoidea (Hesperinidae, Pachyneuridae, Bibionidse, Scatopsidae, Corynoscelidae) Suborder Brachycera Division Orthorrhapha Rhagiomorpha Stratiomyioidea (Xylophagidae or Erinnidae, Coenomyiidae, Solvi- dae, Stradomyiidae, Chiromyzidae) Rhagionoidea (Rhagionidae, Hilarimorphidae) Tabanoidea (Tabanidae, Pantophthalmidae) Therevomorpha Therevoidea (Therevidae, Scenopinidae or Omphralidae) Asiloidea (Mydaidae, Apioceridae, Asilidae) Bombylioidea (Bombyliidae, Nemestrinidae, Acroceridae) Empididoidea (Empididae, Dolichopodidae) Division Cyclorrhapha Series Aschiza Phoromorpha Lonchopteroidea or Musidoroidea (Lonchopteridae or Musidori- dae) Phoroidea (Phoridae, Termitoxeniidae, Thaumatoxenidae) Syrphomorpha Platypezoidea or Clythioidea (Platypezidae or Clythiidae, Sciado- ceridae) Syrphoidea (Pipunculidae or Dorylaidae, Syrphidae, Conopidae) Series Schizophora Secdon Myodaria Subsecdon Calyptrat^ (Thecostomata) Muscomorpha Muscoidea (Calliphoridae, Sarcophagidae, Rhinophoridae; Tach- inidae or Larvaevoridae, Dexiidae, Phasiidae; Muscidae, Glossini- dae, Anthomyiidae, Cordyluridae; CEstridae, Hypodermatidae, Cuterebridae, Gasterophilidae) Subsection Acalyptrat^ (Haplostomata) Otidimorpha Tyloidea (Tanypezidae, Tylidae, Neriidas, Nothybidae) Otitoidea (Pyrgotidae, Platystomatidae, Richardiidae, Phytalmii- dae, Pterocallidae, Odddae, Ulidiidae; Trypeddae or Euribiidae; Tachiniscidae, Lonchaeidae, Pallopteridae) SdOMYZOMORPHA Sciomyzoidea (Sciomyzidae, Dryomyzidae, Neotdophilidae, Rho- palomeridae, Rhinotoridae) Sepsoidea (Sepsidae, Piophilidae, Thyreophoridae, Megamerinidae; Diopsidae; Psilidae) Lauxaniomorpha Lauxanioidea (Lauxaniidae, Celyphidae, Chamaemyiidae) CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 23 Helomyzoidea (Ccelopidae, Helomyzidae, Trixoscelidae, Chyro- myiidae) Anthomyzoidea (Clusiidae, Anthomyzidae, Opomyzidae) Drosophilomorpha Drosophiloidea (Drosophilidae, Diastatidae, Astiidae, Periscelidi- dae, Aulacogastridae, Cnemospathidae) Ephydroidea (Canaceidae, Ephydridae, Tethinidae; Sphaeroceridae, Leptoceridae, Mormotomyiidae; Chloropidae) Milichioidea (Agromyzidae, Odiniidae, Cryptochaetidae, Car- nidae, Milichiidae) Section Pupipara Brauloidea (Braulidae, Nycteribiidae) Hippoboscoidea (Hippoboscidae, Streblidae) Order SIPHONAPTERA (Stephanocircidae, Ischnopsyllidae, Dolichopsyllidae, Hystrichopsyl- lidar, Pulicidae, Hectopsyllidae, Tungidae) Order COLEOPTERA Suborder Adephaga Caraboidea (Cicindelidae, Carabidae, Amphizoidae, Hygrobiidae, Haliplidae, Dytiscidae) Gyrinoidea (Gyrinidae) Cupoidea (Cupidae) Rhysodoidea (Rhysodidae, Jacobsoniidae) Suborder Polyphaga Hydrophiloidea (Hydrophilidae, Hydroscaphidae) Staphylinoidea (Silphidae, Thorictidae, Sphaeritidae, Leptinidae, Clambidae, Scaphidiidae, Scydmaenidae, Brathinidae, Staphylinidae, Plarypsyllidae, Pselaphidae, Clavigeridae, Micropeplidae, Limulodi- dae) Cucujoidea (Cucujidae, Parandridae, Helotidae, Passandridae, Sil- vanidae) Cantharoidea (Lampyridae, Cantharidae, Lycidae, Drilidas, Ly- mexylidae, Micromalthidae, Atractoceridae, Telegeusidae, Dasytidae, Malachiidae, Cleridae, Corynetidae) Mordelloidea (Cephaloidae, GEdemeridae, Mordellidae, Rhipiphori- dae, Meloidae, Eurystethidae, Pythidae, Pyrochroidae, Pedilidae, An- thicidae, Aderidae, Hemipeplidae) Elateroidea (Cerophytidae, Cebrionidae, Plastoceridae, Rhipiceri- dae, Elateridae, Melasidae, Throscidae, Buprestidae) Dryopoidea (Psephenidae, Dryopidae, Elmidae, Heteroceridae, Geo- ryssidae) Dascylloidea (Dascyllidae, Helodidae, Chelonariidae, Dermestidae, Byturidae, Byrrhidae, Nosodendridae, Ptinidae, Ectrephidae, Gnosti- dae, Eucinetidae, Limnichidae, Brachyspectridae, Hypocephalidae) Histeroidea (Histeridae, Niponiidae, Synteliidae) Colydioidea (Colydiidae, Murmidiidae, Ostomatidae, Monotomidae, Crytophagidae, Nitidulidae, Brachypteridae, Cybocephalidar, Rhizo- phagidae, Ciidae, Mycetophagidae, Erotylidae, Languriidae, Cato- 24 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology pochrotidae, Phalacridae, Lyctidae, Anobiidae, Bostrichidae, Lathri- diidae, Smicripidae, Derodontidae, Endomychidae, Mycetaeidae, Coc- cinellidae, Orthoperidae, Phasnocephalidae, Sphaeriidae, Ptiliidae, Hydroscaphidae, Discolomidae, Cyathoceridae, Aculognathidae, Monoedidae, Diphyllidae) Tenebrionoidea (Tenebrionidae, Cossyphodidae, Cistelidae, Petriidae, Lagriidae, Elacatidae, Nilionidae, Sphindidae, Serropalpidae, Scrap- tiidae, Monommatidae, Trictenotomidae) Cerambycoidea (Prionidae, Lamiidae, Cerambycidae, Donaciidae, Megascelidae, Sagridae, Crioceridae, Cryptocephalidae, Chlamisidae, Megalopodidae, Clytridae, Chrysomelidae, Lamprosomaddae, Eu- molpidae, Galerucidae, Alticidae, Hispidae, Cassididae, Bruchidae) Curculionoidea (Brenthidae, Cyladidae, Nemonychidae, Curculion- idae, Platypodidae, Chapuisiidse, Scolyddae, Scolytoplatypodidae, Ipidae, Anthribidae, Aglycyderidae, Proterhinidae) Scarab^oidea (Passalidae, Lucanidae, Sinodendridae, Trogidae, Scara- baeidae, Geotrupidae, Pleocomidae, Glaphyridae, Orphnidae, Ocho- daeidae, Hybosoridae, Aphodiidae, ^Egialiidae, Melolonthidae, Eu- chiridae, Rutelidae, Pachypodidae, Dynastidae, Phaenomeridae, Ce- toniidae, Trichiidae, Acanthoceridae) Order STREPSIPTERA Mengeoidea (Mengeidae, Mengenillidae) Stichotrematoidea (Sdchotrematidae) Xenoidea (Callipharixenidae, Myrmecolacidae, Stylopidae) Halictophagoidea (Halictophagidae) Elenchoidea (Elenchidae) Order HYMENOPTERA Suborder Chalastogastra Megalodontoidea (Pamphiliidae, Xyelidae, Megalodonddae) Tenthredinoidea (Pergidae, Cimbicidae, Argidae, Blasdcotomidae, Tendiredinidae, Diprionidae, Acorduleceridae) Siricoidea (Xiphydriidae, Cephidae, Siricidae, Syntexidae) Oryssoidea (Oryssidae) Suborder Clistogastra Division TEREBRANTIA Ichneumonoidea (Megalyridae, Stephanidae, Aulacidae, Gasterup- tionidae, Evaniidae, Braconidae, Ichneumonidae, Agriotypidae, Alysi- idae, Trigonalidae) Chalcidoidea (Torymidae, Agaontidae, Chalcididae, Leucospididae, Ormyridae, Eurytomidae, Perilampidae, Eucharididae, Cleonymidae, Encyrtidae, Pteromalidae, Miscogastridae, Elasmidae, Leptofcenidae, Eulophidae, Trichogrammaddae, Mymaridae, Mymarommatidae) Proctotrypoidea (Pelecinidae, Monomachidae, Heloridae, Ropronii- dae, Vanhorniidae, Proctotrypidae, Belyddae, Diapriidae, Scelionidae, Ceraphronidae, Platygastridae) Cynipoidea (Ibaliidae, Cynipidae, Figitidae, Pterosdgmatidae, Ober- thuerellidae, Eucoilidae, Liopteridae, Charipidae, Aspiceridae, Ana- charitidae) CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 25 Division ACULEATA Bethyloidea (Rhopalosomatidae, Bethylidae, Dryinidae, Embolemi- dx, Sclerogibbidae) Chrysidoidea (Cleptidae, Chrysididae, Alienidae) Scolioidea (Sapygidae, Plumariidae, Scoliidae, Tiphiidae, Anthobosci- dae, Sierolomorphidae, Thynnidae, Methocidae, Myrmosidae, Mudl- lidae, Apterogynidae) Formicoidea (Formicidae) Vespoidea (Vespidae) Pompiloidea (Pompilida;) Sphecoidea (Ampulicidae, Sphecidae, Mellinidae, Gorytidae, Nyssoni- dae, Trypoxylidae, Stizidae, Dimorphidae, Bembicidae, Larridae, Miscophidae, Philanthidae, Cerceridae, Alyssonidae, Pemphredoni- dae, Crabronidae, Oxybelidae) Apoidea (Andrenidas, Halictidae, Colletidae, Melittidae, Megachilidae, Apidae) 26 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology KEY TO THE CLASSES OF ARTHROPODA 1. Antennae absent; often four or five pairs of legs, sometimes more very rarely less 2 One or two pairs of antennae present; legs variable, often three or many pairs 1 9 2. Marine animals, occasionally living near the tidal zone 3 Terrestrial, rarely aquatic species living in fresh water; never living in the ocean below the tidal zone 4 3. Respiratory organs well developed, consisting of blood gills; length of body and tail more than twice length of longest leg; large animals, the body covered by a convex carapace. King crabs, Horseshoe crabs XIPHOSURA Respiratory organs absent or vestigial; length of body and abdomen usually much less than one-half length of longest leg (length rarely equal) PYCNOGONIDA 4. Four pairs of legs in the adult, sometimes with another more anterior pair of appendages (pedipalpi) resembling walking legs 5 Three pairs of legs or less 6 5. With a well developed respiratory system composed of book lungs or of tubular tracheae opening by spiracles, or of both in the same animal; reproductive organs opening near the base of the abdomen below; integument usually heavily chitinized at least on part of the body. Spiders, Scorpions, Mites, Ticks, etc. ARACHNIDA (Page 693) Without any special respiratory organs, reproductive organs opening into the alimentary canal; very small or microscopic animals with weakly chitinized integument. Water bears, Bear animalcules. TARDIGRADA (Page 753) 6. With three pairs of legs, or with only two pairs, in the latter case the body is vermiform and shows many minute transverse wrinkles or annulations; small or minute animals 7 Without legs in the adult which is vermiform and shows many minute transverse wrinkles or annulations, or with two pairs in the embryo or young larva which is short and not thus annulate; internal parasites of vertebrates (see couplet 5). PENTAST6MIDA (Page 750) 7. Three pairs of legs 8 Two pairs of legs; body long, tapering, the integument with minute Mn the immature stages of some insects, and even in the adult females in very rare cases, the antennae are absent or vestigial. If it is suspected that any such forms may be insects, they must be examined by reference to the "Key to the Orders of Insecta," p. 28. The number of marine insects is almost negligible. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 27 transverse rings or wrinkles; living in plant or animal tissues. Some Acarina (see couplet 5). ARACHNIDA, part. (Page 693) 8. Body elongate; abdomen consisting of eleven segments, its basal three segments each bearing a pair of vestigial legs. (Order Protura). (If internal parasites, cf. Strepsiptera, p. 618). INSECTA, part. (Page 28) Body short, rounded or oval; abdomen not segmented and without appendages below. The young of some Acarina. ARACHNIDA, part. (Page 693) 9. Only one pair of antennae 10 Two pairs of antennae; five or more pairs of legs; aquatic (very rarely terrestrial) animals living in the sea or in fresh water, provided with true gills, except in some parasitic forms. CRUSTACEA (Page 692) 10. With three pairs of legs in the adult, and usually with wings; legs reduced in size and structure or often completely absent in the larva INSECTA (Page 28) More than three pairs of legs; no wings; body usually very elon- gate • • 11 11. Legs of the first three segments behind the head similar, composed of distinct joints, but of a different type from the more posterior pairs which are not clearly jointed. Larvae of some insects. INSECTA, part. (Page 28) Legs essentially similar, at most only the first pair strikingly different from the more posterior ones 12 12. Legs composed of distinct, heavily chitinized segments which are articulated by sharply differentiated joints; integument usually heavily chitinized 13 Legs fleshy with numerous annulations, but without any clearly articulated joints; long cylindrical, soft-bodied animals. Tropical. ONYCH6PHORA (Page 690) 13. Not more than one pair of legs on any segment of the body 14 Two pairs of legs on some, usually on most of the segments of the body (as indicated by the tergites); body usually more or less cylindrical DIPL6PODA (Page 756) 14. Antennae simple, not branched 15 Antennae branched apically, terminating in three multiarticulate setiform appendages; minute animals without respiratory organs. PAUR6PODA (Page 755) 15. Legs terminating in a single tarsal claw; first pair of legs modified to form jaw-like poison fangs; at least nineteen body segments and fifteen or more pairs of legs in the adult. Centipedes CHIL6PODA (Page 770) Legs each bearing two tarsal claws; first pair of legs more or less 28 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology reduced in size, not jaw-like and without poison gland; 15 to 22 body segments and twelve pairs of legs. SYMPHYLA (Page 774) CLASS INSfiCTA {HEX APOD A) Small or moderate-sized, frequently very small or minute, never very large, Arthropoda. Body of adult and sometimes also of the immature stages more or less clearly divided into three groups of segments, head, thorax and abdomen; those forming the head fused into a single piece. Three thoracic segments, each bearing a pair of legs; the first segment often much more freely articulated than the others; second and third each usually bearing a pair of wings, sometimes absent on the third or entirely wanting. Abdomen composed of eleven segments or less, fre- quently six to eight, often terminated by a pair of cerci. One pair of antennae almost always present; three pairs of mouthparts; a pair of mandibles fitted for chewing or piercing, and two pairs of maxillae, the latter usually bearing a jointed palpus. Compound eyes and three simple ocelli usually present. Legs almost always terminating in claws, usually nine- or eight-jointed, occasionally less. Wings usually supplied with a series of branched veins or chitinous thickenings, fore pair often thicker than the hind ones. Respiration by branched, tubular tracheae opening by segmentally arranged pairs of spiracles. Development direct in the primitive forms or with a metamorphosis often involving great changes in form and habits. Younger stages without functional wings; in the forms undergoing metamorphosis with the legs and antennae much reduced and the body grub-like, caterpillar-like, or vermiform. Insects. KEY TO THE ORDERS OF INSECTA 1 1 . Wings developed 2 Wingless, or with vestigial, or with rudimentary wings not suitable for flight (wingless adults and immature stages) 33 2. The wings of the mesothorax (the fore wings) horny, leathery or parchment-like, at least at the base; differing materially in texture 1 Caution must be exercised in the use of this key. There are very many scattered exceptions to the general characters that must be used to define numerous extensive groups, especially in the immature stages of development. When in doubt, reference to the descriptive paragraph that precedes each ordinal key will aid in placing various degenerate, aberrant or highly modified forms. Any attempt to include more than a few of these types would encumber the key with more detail than is advisable for ordinary use. Specialized references to more elaborate considerations of immature stages are cited in the several lists of literature on later pages of this volume. Tentative keys for the identification of immature stages of some of the better known orders will be found also, following in each case the key to the adults. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 29 from the membranous hind wings which exceptionally may be absent. Prothorax large and not fused with the mesothorax (except in the rare Strepsiptera, which have minute fore wings) 3 The mesothoracic wings membranous 12 3. Mesothoracic wings (called tegmina or hemelytra) containing veins, or at least the metathoracic wings not folded crossways when hidden under the upper wings 4 Mesothoracic wings (called elytra) veinless, of uniform, horny consistency, the metathoracic wings, when present, folded cross- ways as well as lengthwise when at rest and hidden beneath the elytra; mouth mandibulate 11 4. Mouthparts forming a jointed beak, fitted for piercing and suck- ing _ 5 Mouthparts with mandibles fitted for chewing and moving later- ally > 6 5. Head usually horizontal and with the beak arising from the under part so as to project downwards, the gula well developed; meso- thoracic wings usually leathery at the base and abruptly mem- branous on the apical portion, the membranous parts usually overlapping one another and lying flat over the abdomen when at rest. True bugs. HEMIPTERA, Suborder HETER6PTERA (Page 167) Head usually vertical and with the beak arising from the back part so as to project backward between the front legs; gula absent, or represented by a small membrane. HEMIPTERA, Suborder HOM6PTERA (Page 146) 6. Hind wings not folded, similar to the fore wings; thickened basal part of wings very short, separated from the rest of the wing by a preformed transverse suture; social species, living in colonies. Termites ISOPTERA (Page 121) Hind wings folding, fan-like, broader than the fore wings 7 7. Usually rather large or moderately large species; antennae usually lengthened and thread-like; prothorax large and free from the mesothorax; cerci present; fore wings rarely minute, usually long 8 Very small active species; antennae short, with few joints, at least one joint bearing a long lateral process; no cerci; fore wings minute; prothorax small. Rare, short-lived insects, parasites of other insects, usually wasps and bees. Males of STREPSfPTERA (Page 618) 8. Hind femora not larger than the fore femora; mute species; body more or less flattened with the wings superposed when at rest; tergites and sternites subequal 9 Hind femora almost always much larger than the fore femora, 30 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology jumping species, if not (Gryllotalpidae) the front legs broadened for burrowing; species usually capable of chirping or making a creaking noise; body more or less cylindrical, the wings held sloping against the sides of the body when at rest, tergites usually larger than the sternites. Grasshoppers, Katydids, Crickets. ORTH6PTERA, Suborder SALTATORIA (Page 93) 9. Body elongate; head free, not concealed from above by the pro- thorax; deliberate movers 10 Body oval, much flattened; head nearly concealed beneath the oval pronotum; legs similar and fitted for rapid running, the coxae large and the tibiae noticeably spiny or bristly. Roaches. BLATTARIA (Page 77) 10. Prothorax much longer than the mesothorax; front legs almost always heavily spined, formed for seizing prey; cerci usually with several joints. Mantes, Leaf insects. ORTH6PTERA, Suborder MANTEODEA (Page 84) Prothorax short; legs similar, formed for walking; cerci one-jointed. Stick insects, Walking sticks. (If the wings lack crossveins and have a short thickened basal stub, separated by a curved transverse suture, see Mastotermes, p. 122.) ORTHOPTERA, Suborder PHASMAT6DEA (Page 102) 11. Abdomen terminated by movable, almost always heavily chitinized forceps; antennae long and slender; fore wings short, leaving most of the abdomen uncovered, hind wings nearly circular, delicate, radially folded from near the center; elongate insects. Earwigs. DERMAPTERA (Page 112) Abdomen not terminated by forceps; 1 antennae of various forms but usually eleven-jointed; fore wings usually completely sheathing the abdomen; generally hard-bodied species. Beetles, Weevils. COLEOPTERA (Page 543) 12. With four wings 13 With but two wings (the mesothoracic) usually outspread when at rest 31 13. Wings long, very narrow, the margins fringed with long hairs, al- most veinless; tarsi one- or two-jointed, with swollen tip; mouth- parts asymmetrical, without biting mandibles, fitted for lacerating and sucking plant tissues; no cerci; minute species. Thrips. THYSAN6PTERA (Page 135) Wings broader and most often supplied with veins, if rarely some- what linear the tarsi have more than two joints and the last tarsal joint is not swollen 14 14. Wings, legs and body clothed, at least in part, with elongate flattened scales (often intermixed with hairs) which nearly always 1 If very rarely (one African genus) with apical forceps-like appendages, the wings are not as in Dermaptera. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 31 form a color pattern on the wings; mouthparts (rarely vestigial) forming a coiled tongue composed of the maxillae, biting mandibles present only in Micropterygoidea, p. 228. Moths and butterflies. LEPIDOPTERA (Page 226) Wings, legs and body not clothed with scales although sometimes hairy and having a few scales intermixed; sometimes with bristles, especially on the legs, or rarely with waxen flakes or dust; color pattern when present extending to the wing membrane 15 15. Hind wings with the anal area separated, folded fan-like in plaits when in repose, nearly always wider and noticeably larger than the fore wings; antennae prominent; wing veins usually numerous; nymphs or larvae nearly always aquatic 16 Hind wings without a separated anal area, not folded and not larger than the fore wings 18 16. Tarsi five-jointed; cerci not pronounced 17 Tarsi three-jointed; cerci well developed, usually long and many jointed; prothorax large, free; species of moderate to large size. Stone-flies PLECOPTERA (Page 73) 17. Wings with a number of subcostal crossveins; prothorax rather large; species of moderate to large size. NEUROPTERA, Suborder SIALODEA (Page 204) Wings without subcostal crossveins, with the surface hairy; pro- thorax small; species of small to moderate size. TRICHOPTERA (Page 216) 18. Antennae short and inconspicuous; wings netveined with numerous crossveins; mouthparts mandibulate; nymphs aquatic. (Subuli- cornia) 19 Antennae larger, if of rather small size the wings have few crossveins or the mouthparts form a jointed sucking beak; immature stages almost always terrestrial 20 19. Hind wings much smaller than the fore wings; abdomen ending in long, thread-like processes; tarsi normally four- or five-jointed; sluggish fliers. May flies PLECT6PTERA (Page 55) Hind wings nearly like the fore wings; no caudal setae; tarsi three- jointed; vigorous, active fliers, often of large size. Dragon flies, Damsel flies ODONATA (Page 62) 20. Head produced into a mandibulate beak (Fig. 354), hind wings not folded; wings usually with color pattern, the crossveins numerous; male genitalia usually greatly swollen, forming a reflexed bulb. Scorpion flies MEC6PTERA (Page 214) Head not drawn out as a mandibulate beak; male abdomen not forcipate 21 21. Mouth mandibulate 22 Mouth haustellate, the mandibles not formed for chewing; no cerci; crossveins few 29 32 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology 22. Tarsi five-jointed, if rarely three- or four-jointed, the hind wings are smaller than the front ones and the wings lie flat over the body; no cerci 23 Tarsi two-, three- or four-jointed; veins and crossveins not numer- ous 26 23. Prothorax small or only moderately long. (In Mantispidae the pro- thorax is very long, but the front legs are strongly raptorial) .... 24 Prothorax very long and cylindrical, much longer than the head; front legs normal; antenna: with more than eleven joints; cross- veins numerous. NEUROPTERA, Suborder RAPHIDIODEA (Page 205) 24. Wings similar, with many veins and crossveins; prothorax more or less free. If the neuration is very rarely reduced (Coniopteryx) the wings are powdered 25 Wings with relatively few angular cells, the costal cell without cross- veins; hind wings smaller than the fore pair; prothorax fused with the mesothorax; abdomen frequently constricted at the base and ending in a sting or specialized ovipositor. Ants, Wasps, Bees, etc HYMENOPTERA (Page 621) 25. Costal cell, at least in the fore wing, almost always with many cross- veins. . NEUR6PTERA, Suborder PLANIPENNIA (Page 206) Costal cell without crossveins. (If wings are clothed with scales, see Micropterygidae, p. 228.) MEC6PTERA (Page 214) 26. Wings equal in size, or rarely the hind wings larger, held super- posed on the top of the abdomen when at rest; media fused with the radial sector for a short distance near the middle of the wing; tarsi three-, four-, or five-jointed 27 Hind wings smaller than the fore wings; wings held at rest folded back against the abdomen; radius and media not fusing; tarsi two- or three-jointed 28 27. Tarsi apparently four-jointed; cerci usually minute; wings with a transverse preformed suture near the base where they break off soon after the insect reaches the adult stage; social species, living in colonies. Termites IS6PTERA (Page 121) Tarsi three-jointed, the front metatarsi swollen; cerci conspicuous; usually solitary species EMBIODEA (Page 119) 28. Cerci absent; tarsi two- or three-jointed; wings remaining attached throughout life; radial sector and media branched, except when fore wings are much thickened. . . CORRODENTIA (Page 125) Cerci present; tarsi two-jointed; wings deciduous at maturity, the neuration greatly reduced; radial sector and media simple, un- branched ZORAPTERA (Page 130) 29. Wings not covered with scales, not outspread when at rest; pro- thorax large; antennae with few joints; mouthparts forming a jointed piercing beak 30 CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 33 Wings and body covered with colored scales which form a definite pattern on the wings; antennae many-jointed; mouthparts when present forming a coiled tongue. Moths and Butterflies. LEPID6PTERA (Page 226) 30. Beak arising from the back of the head. HEMIPTERA, Suborder HOM6PTERA (Page 140) Beak arising from the front part of the head. HEMfPTERA, Suborder HETER6PTERA (Page 167) 31. Mouth not functional; abdomen furnished with a pair of caudal fila- ments 32 Mouthparts forming a proboscis, only exceptionally vestigial; abdo- men without caudal filaments; hind wings replaced by knobbed halteres. Flies, Mosquitoes, Midges DfPTERA (Page 305) 32. No halteres; antennae inconspicuous; crossveins abundant. A few rare May flies PLECTOPTERA (Page 55) Hind wings represented by minute hook-like halteres; antennae evi- dent; neuration reduced to a forked vein; crossveins lacking; minute delicate insects. Males of Scale insects. HEMIPTERA, Suborder HOM6PTERA (Page 140) Wingless Adult Forms and Immature Stages of Several Orders x 33. Body more or less insect-like, i.e. with more or less distinct head, thorax and abdomen, and jointed legs, and capable of locomo- tion 34 Without distinct body parts, or without jointed legs, or incapable of locomotion 78 34. Terrestrial, breathing through spiracles; rarely without special res- piratory organs 35 Living in the water; usually gill-breathing, larval forms 64 Parasites on warm-blooded animals 72 35. Mouthparts retracted into the head and scarcely or not at all visible; underside of the abdomen with styles or other appendages; less than three joints on maxillary palpi if antennae present; very delicate, small or minute insects. (APTERYGOTA) 36 Mouthparts conspicuously visible externally; if mouthparts mandib- ulars, maxillary palpi more than two-jointed; antennae always present; underside of abdomen rarely with styles 38 1 Any key to immature insects designed to include the innumerable variations presented by highly modified members of many orders becomes so lengthy, complex and unwieldy that it cannot serve the purpose of this book. Keys are included in later sections for the immature stages in certain orders, but these are necessarily incomplete and not fully reliable due to lack of knowledge at the present time. It is suggested that immature specimens be tried out in these later keys when it seems probable that they run out to one of the groups included in the couplets on the following pages. 34 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology 36. Antennae absent; no long cerci, pincers, springing apparatus or an- terior ventral sucker on abdomen; head pear-shaped PROTURA (Page 42) Antennae conspicuous; pincers, long cerci, or basal ventral sucker present on abdomen 37 37. Abdomen consisting of six segments or less, with a forked sucker (collophore) at base of abdomen below; no terminal pincers or long cerci; usually with conspicuous springing apparatus (furcula) near the end of the abdomen COLLEMBOLA (Page 50) Abdomen consisting of more than eight visible segments, with long, multi-articulate cerci or strong pincers at the end; eyes and ocelli absent ENT6TROPHI (Page 47) 38. Mouthparts mandibulate, formed for chewing 39 Mouthparts haustellate, formed for sucking 60 39. Body usually covered with scales; abdomen with three prominent caudal filaments and bearing at least two pairs of ventral styles. THYSANURA (Page 44) Body never covered with scales; never with three caudal filaments; ventral styles absent on the abdomen 40 40. Underside of abdomen entirely without legs 41 Abdomen bearing false legs beneath, which differ from those of the thorax; body caterpillar-like, cylindrical, the thorax and abdo- men not distinctly separated; larval forms 58 41. Antennae long and distinct 42 Antennae short, not pronounced; larval forms 55 42. Abdomen terminated by strong movable forceps; prothorax free. Earwigs DERMAPTERA (Page 112) Abdomen not ending in forceps 43 43. Abdomen not strongly constricted at the base, broadly joined to the thorax 44 Abdomen strongly constricted at the base; prothorax fused with the mesothorax. Ants, etc HYMENOPTERA (Page 621) 44. Head not prolonged into a beak 45 Head produced into a mandibulate beak. MEC6PTERA (Page 214) 45. Very small species, the body soft and weakly sclerotized; tarsi two or three-jointed 46 Usually much larger species; tarsi usually with more than three joints, or the body is hard and heavily sclerotized and the cerci are absent 47 46. Cerci absent. Book lice CORRODENTIA (Page 125) Cerci one-jointed, prominent ZORAPTERA (Page 130) 47. Hind legs fitted for jumping, the femora enlarged; wing-pads of larvae when present in inverse position, the metathoracic over- CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 35 lapping the mesothoracic. ORTHOPTERA, Suborder SALTATORIA (Page 93) Hind legs not enlarged for jumping; wing-pads, if present, in nor- mal position 48 48. Prothorax much longer than the mesothorax; front legs fitted for grasping prey. ORTHOPTERA, Suborder MANTEODEA (Page 84) Prothorax not greatly lengthened 49 49. Cerci present; antennae usually with more than fifteen joints, often many-jointed 50 No cerci; body often hard-shelled; antennae usually with eleven joints COLEOPTERA (Page 543) 50. Cerci with more than three joints 51 Cerci short, with one to three joints 53 51. Body flattened and oval; head inflexed; prothorax oval. Roaches. BLATTARIA (Page 77) Body elongate; head nearly horizontal 52 52. Cerci long; ovipositor chitinized, exserted; tarsi five-jointed. ORTHOPTERA, Suborder GRYLLOBLATTODEA (Page 92) Cerci short; no ovipositor; tarsi four-jointed. ISOPTERA (Page 121) 53. Tarsi five-jointed (three-jointed in Timemidae, non-social species with the front tarsi not swollen); body usually very slender and long. Walking sticks. ORTHOPTERA, Suborder PHASMATODEA (Page 102) Tarsi two or three jointed; body not linear 54 54. Front tarsi with the first joint swollen, containing a silk-spinning gland, producing a web in which the insects live; body long and slender EMBIODEA (Page 119) Front tarsi not swollen, without silk-spinning gland; body much stouter; social species with an apterous, infertile caste. Termites. ISOPTERA (Page 121) 55. Body cylindrical, caterpillar-like 56 Body more or less depressed, not caterpillar-like 57 56. Head with six ocelli on each side; labium with spinnerets; antennae inserted in membranous area at base of mandibles. Larvae of some LEPID6PTERA Head with more than six ocelli on each side; metathoracic legs dis- tinctly larger than prothoracic legs. ' Larvae of Boreidae, MECOPTERA 57. Mandibles united with the corresponding maxillae to form sucking jaws (Fig. 975). Larvae of NEUROPTERA, Suborder PLANIPENNIA Mandibles almost always separate from the maxillae (Figs. 972, 973, 976, 977, 979, 980, 983, 984, 986, 992). Larvae of COLEOPTERA; NEUROPTERA, Suborder RAPHIDIODEA; STREPSfPTERA; DfPTERA 36 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology 58. False legs (prolegs) numbering five pairs or less, located on various abdominal segments, but not on the first, second, or seventh; the false legs tipped with many minute hooks (crochets) (hookless prolegs rarely on second and seventh segments). Larvae of most LEPIDOPTERA (Page 271) False legs numbering from six to ten pairs, one pair of which occurs on the second abdominal segment; the prolegs not tipped with minute hooks 59 59. Head with a single ocellus on each side. (Figs. 966—971). Larvae of some HYMENOPTERA (Page 659) Head with several ocelli on each side Larvae of MECOPTERA 60. Body bare or with few scattered hairs, or with waxy coating 61 Body densely clothed with hairs or scales; proboscis if present coiled under the head. Moths LEPIDOPTERA (Page 226) 61. Last tarsal joint swollen; mouth consisting of a triangular unjointed beak; minute species. Thrips . . THYS ANOPTERA (Page 135) Tarsi not bladder-like at the tip, and with distinct claws 62 62. Prothorax distinct 63 Prothorax small, hidden when viewed from above. DIPTERA (Page 305) 63. Beak arising from the front part of the head. HEMIPTERA, Suborder HETEROPTERA (Page 167) Beak arising from the back part of the head. HEMIPTERA, Suborder HOMOPTERA (Page 140) 64. Mouth mandibulate 65 Mouth haustellate, forming a strong pointed inflexed beak. Nymphs of HEMfPTERA 65. Mandibles exserted straight forward and united with the correspond- ing maxillae to form piercing jaws. Larvae of some NEUROPTERA Mandibles normal, moving laterally to function as biting jaws .66 66. Body not encased in a shell made of sand, pebbles, leaves, etc 67 Case-bearing forms; tracheal gills usually present. Periwinkles, Cad- dis-worms. (Fig. 974) Larvae of TRICHOPTERA 67. Abdomen furnished with external lateral gills or respiratory proc- esses (a few Coleoptera and Trichoptera here also) 68 Abdomen without external gills 69 68. Abdomen terminated by two or three long caudal filaments. Larvae of PLECT6PTERA Abdomen with short end processes. Larvae of NEUROPTERA, Suborder SIALODEA 69. Lower lip strong, extensile, and furnished with a pair of opposable hooks Larvae of ODONATA Lower lip not capable of being thrust forward and not hooked . 70 70. Abdomen without false legs 71 CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 37 Abdomen bearing paired false legs on several segments. A few larvae of LEPIDOPTERA 71. The three divisions of the thorax loosely united; antennas and caudal filaments long and slender Larvae of PLEC6PTERA Thoracic divisions not constricted; antennae and caudal filaments short (also some aquatic larvae of Diptera and a few Trichoptera here) Larvae of COLE6PTERA 72. Body flattened (or larval maggots) 73 Body strongly compressed; mouth formed as a sharp inflexed beak; jumping species. Fleas SIPHONAPTERA (Page 538) 73. Mandibulate mouthparts formed for chewing 74 Haustellate mouthparts formed for piercing and sucking 76 74. Mouth inferior; cerci long 75 Mouth anterior; no cerci; generally elongate-oval insects with some- what triangular head; parasites of birds or mammals. Biting lice MALLOPHAGA (Page 131) 75. Cerci straight; eyes absent; antennae short; external parasites of rodents. DERMAPTERA, Suborder DIPLOGLOSSATA (Page 112) Cerci strongly bent or angulate at the middle; eyes present; antennae nearly as long as the body; external parasites of bats. Some DERMAPTERA (Page 112) 76. Antennae exserted, visible, though rather short 77 Antennae inserted in pits, not visible from above (also the larval maggots, without antennae) . . Pupiparous DfPTERA (Page 384) 77. Beak unjointed; tarsi formed as a hook for grasping the hairs of the host; permanent parasites. Lice ANOPLURA (Page 202) Beak jointed; tarsi not hooked; temporary parasites. HEMfPTERA (Page 140) 78. Legless grubs, maggots or borers; locomotion effected by a squirm- ing motion. Larvae of Strepsiptera, Siphonaptera, and of some Coleoptera (see couplet 57), Diptera, Lepidoptera and Hymenop- tera. (If living in the body of wasps or bees, with the flattened head exposed, compare the females of Strepsiptera; if aquatic wrigglers, see larvae and pupae of mosquitoes, etc., p. 391, p. 406). Sedentary forms, incapable of locomotion 79 79. Small degraded forms bearing little superficial resemblance to insects, with a long slender beak, and usually covered with a waxy scale or powder or cottony tufts; living on various plants. Scale insects ? HEMfPTERA (Page 140) Body quiescent, but able to bend from side to side; not capable of feeding, enclosed in a skin which is tightly drawn over all the members, or which leaves the limbs free but folded against the body; sometimes free; sometimes enclosed in a cocoon or in a shell formed from the dried larval skin 80 38 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology 80. The skin encasing the legs, wings, etc., holding the members tightly against the body; prothorax small; a proboscis showing 81 Legs, wings, etc., more or less free from the body; biting mouth- parts showing 82 81. Proboscis usually long, rarely absent; four wing cases; sometimes in a cocoon. (Figs. 990, 996) Pups of LEPIDOPTERA Proboscis short; two wing cases, pupa often enclosed in an oval shell (puparium) formed of the hardened larval skin. (Figs, 991, 997). Pupae of DfPTERA (Page 406) 82. Prothorax small, fused into one piece with the mesothorax; some- times enclosed in a loose cocoon ... Pupae of HYMENOPTERA Prothorax larger and not closely fused with the mesothorax 83 83. Wing cases with few or no veins. (Fig. 994). Pupae of COLE6PTERA Wing cases with a number of branched veins. (Fig. 993). Pupae of NEUROPTERA LITERATURE ON INSECTS General Works on Insects and References Dealing with at least Several Orders Together Balfour-Browne, F. Keys to die Orders of Insects. Cambridge Univ Press 58 pp. (1920). Banks, N. Synopsis, Catalogue and Bibliography of Neuropteroid Insects of North America. Trans. American Entom. Soc, 19, pp. 328-373 (1892). (Includes Neuroptera, Odonata, Plectoptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera, Mecoptera, Isoptera, Embiodea, Megaloptera). A List of Works on North American Entomology. Bull. Bur. Ent , U S Dept. Agric, No. 81, 120 pp. (1910). (A most valuable list of selected works, classified by groups, including also the Arachnida). Berlese, A. Gli Insetti. 2 vols., 2018 pp., Milan (1909-25). Biological Abstracts. Published by the Union of American Biological So- cieties, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1-26 (1926-). An index to biological literature beginning with 1926, with an abstract of those papers to which reference is made. Blair, K. G. Key to Larvae of Insects with Complete Metamorphosis. Trans South London Ent. Soc, 1933-34, p. 100 (1934). Brimley, C. S. Insects of North Carolina. Div. Ent., Univ. North Carolina. 560 pp. (1938). Supplement, 39 pp. (1942). Second Supplement (By D. L Wray), 59 pp. (1950). W Britton, W. E. Check List of the Insects of Connecticut. Bull. State Geol. Nat. Hist. Surv., Connecticut, No. 31, 397 pp. (1920). Additions to Check-list of Insects of Connecticut. Bull. Conn. State Geol Nat. Hist. Survey, No. 60, 169 pp. (1939). Brohmer, P., Ehrmann, P, and Ulmer, G., Editors. Die Tierwelt Mitteleuro- pas, 1928; vol. 2 contains the lower Arthropoda; vol. 3, Arachnida; vol. 4, CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 39 Insects. (The parts are by numerous contributors, and so far as published are listed under the separate groups). Brohmer, P. et al. Fauna von Deutschland. 561 pp., 982 figs. Insects, pp. 129-401. Leipzig, Quelle & Mayer. (1932). Brues, C. T. and Melander, A. L. Key to the Families of North American Insects. 140 pp., Boston, Mass. and Pullman, Wash. (1915). Burr, M. The Insect Legion, xiv + 321 pp., 21 pis. J. Nisbet & Co., London. (1939). Buxton, P. A. et al. Insects of Samoa. 35 parts, 1712 pp., 627 figs. British Mus. Nat. Hist. (1927-35). Numerous sections, not listed separately under the several orders. Carus, J. V. Bibliographia Zoologica. Vols. 1-24 issued with the Zoologischer Anzeiger, Leipzig (1900-13); vols. 25-40 issued separately by the Con- cilium Bibliographicum, Zurich (1913-30). Clausen, C. P. Entomophagous Insects. 688 pp. McGraw-Hill, New York. (1940). Cockerell, T. D. A. Zoology of Colorado. 262 pp., Boulder, Colo., (1927). Comstock, J. H. The Wings of Insects. 423 pp., Comstock Pub. Co., Ithaca, N. Y. (1918). An Introduction to Entomology. Comstock Pub. Co., Ithaca, N. Y., 1044 pp. (1924). Concilium Bibliographicum. Zurich, Switzerland. Index cards to zoological literature, 1896—. (Deals with the whole animal kingdom; the cards issued, one card for each title, usually with brief indication of contents.) Costa Lima, A. da. Catalogo dos insectos que vivem nas plantas do Brasil. Arch. Escola Sup. Agric. Med. Vet., 6, pp. 107-276 (1922). Terciero catalogo dos insectos qui vivem nas plantas do Brasil. Minis. Agric, Rio de Janeiro. 460 pp. (1936). Insetos do Brasil. Escuela Nac. Agron., Rio de Janeiro. 470 pp., 218 figs. (1939). Doane, R. W. et al. Forest Insects. 403 pp. McGraw-Hill, New York. (1934). Escherich, K. Die Forstinsekten Mitteleuropas. 1055 pp., 1188 figs. (1914-42). Essig, E. O. Insects of Western North America. 1035 pp. New York, Mac- millan (1926). College Entomology. 900 pp. New York, Macmillan (1942). Ewing, H. E. Manual of External Parasites. 225 pp. Springfield, 111., C. C. Thomas (1929). Felt, E. P. Key to American Insect Galls. Bull. New York State Mus., No. 200, 310 pp. (1917). (Contains an extensive bibliography.) Plant Galls and their Makers. 364 pp., 344 figs. Comstock Pub. Co. Ithaca, N. Y. (1940). Ferris, G. F. The Principles of Systematic Entomology. Stanford Univ. Publ. Biol. Sci., 5, pp. 103-269 (1928). Filip'ev, N. N. Insect Key. (In Russian) 943 pp. Moscow (1928). Fletcher, T. B. South Indian Insects. 587 pp. Madras (1914). Tentative Keys to the Orders and Families of Indian Insects. Bull. Agric. Res. Inst. Pusa, No. 162, 101 pp. (1926). Froggatt, W. W. Australian Insects. 463 pp. Sydney (1908). Godman, F. D. and Salvin, O., Editors. Biologia Centrali-Americana, Con- 40 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology tributions to a Knowledge of the Fauna and Flora of Mexico and Central America. (Contains Arachnida, Diplopoda, Chilopoda and Insects in many volumes, some of which we have listed separately). London (1896-1915). Gowdey, C. C. Catalogus insectorum Jamaicensis. Ent. Bull. Dept. Agric. Jamaica, 4, 47 pp. (1928). Grasse, P. P. Traite de Zoologie, 9, 10, Insectes inferieures et Coleopteres. (Parts are listed separately.) (1949-50). Hagen, H. A. Bibliotheca Entomologica. 2 vols. Leipzig (1862-63). (Litera- ture up to the year 1863). Handlirsch, A. Die fossilen Insekten und die Phylogenie der rezenten For- men. Leipzig (1906-08). Geschichte. Litteratur, Technik, Palaontologie, Phylogenie und Sys- tematik der Insekten. Schroder's Handbuch der Entomologie, 3, 1201 pp Jena (1925). FF Insecta. Kukenthal, Handbuch der Zoologie, 4, Berlin (1929). Hayes, W. P. Bibliography of Classification of Immature Insects. Ent. News, 49, pp. 250-251; 50, pp. 5-10; 76-82; 52, pp. 52-55, ad seq. (1939-41). Bibliography of Classification of Immature Insects. Journ. Kansas Ent. Soc, 14, pp. 3-11 (1941). Horn, W. and Schenkling, S. Index Litteraturae Entomologies. (Before 1863). Berlin-Dahlem, 4 vols. (1928-29). Houlbert, C. Bibliotheque de Zoologie. In Encyclopedic Scientifique, Paris, Doin. (Insects form part 5 and numerous volumes.) Imms, A. D. A General Textbook of Entomology. E. P. Dutton, New York and Methuen and Co., London (1926). Second Edition. E. P. Dutton, New York and Methuen and Co., London, x 4- 720 pp., 607 figs. (1930). Lameere, A. Precis de Zoologie, vols. 4 and 5. Univ. Brussels, Inst. Torley- Rousseau, 1004 pp. (1935). Les Insects Aptilotes. Les Paleoptilotes, les Orthopteres, les Hemipteres, les Stegopteres, les Dipteres, les Lepidopteres. Les Animaux de la Beige, Brussels, 3, 132 pp. (1940). Leonard, M. D. List of the Insects and Spiders of New York State. Mem. Cornell Agric. Expt. Sta., No. 101, 1121 pp. (1926). Lindroth, C. H. Die Insektenfauna Islands [Iceland]. Zool. Bidrag, 13, pp. 105-589, 50 figs. (1931). Lutz, F. E. Field Book of Insects. (Northeastern North America.) 509 pp. New York (1918). Third Edition. 510 pp., 100 pis. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York. (1935). Matsumura, S. The Illustrated Thousand Insects of Japan. Tokyo. Numer- ous parts. [In Japanese] (1905-30). Six Thousand Illustrated Insects of Japanese Empire. [In Japanese] viii -f 1688 pp. Tokyo (1931). (Some parts are listed separately.) Maxwell-Lefroy, H. and Howlett, F. M. Indian Insect Life. 798 pp. Cal- cutta (1909). Metcalf, C. L., and Flint, W. P. Destructive and Useful Insects. McGraw- Hill Book Co., New York. 981 pp. (1939). Third Edition. 1054 pp. McGraw-Hill. New York. (1951). Mickel, C. E. Classification of Insects. Ann. Ent. Soc. America, 42, pp. 1-6 (1949). ™ CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 41 Musgrave, A. Bibliography of Australian Entomology. 380 pp. Royal Soc. New South Wales, Sydney. (1932.) Needham, J. G., Frost, S. W., and Tothill, B. H. Leaf-mining Insects. 351 pp., 91 figs. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore. (1928.) Ogilvie, L. The Insects of Bermuda. 52" pp. (1928). Supplement, 10 pp. (1940). Omer-Cooper, J. Classification of the Recent Hexapod Insects. Journ. Ent. Soc. Southern Africa, 1, pp. 137-148 (1939). Peterson, Alvah. Keys to the Orders of Immature Stages of North American Insects. Ann. Ent. Soc. America, 32, pp. 267-268 (1939). Larva: of Insects, Pt. I, 315 pp., 84 pis. (1949); Pt. II, 415 pp., 104 pis. Columbus, Ohio (1951). Pinto, C. Arthropodes parasitos e transmissores de doencas. Vols. 1-2, 845 pp., 36 pis., 356 figs. Pimento de Mello, Rio de Janeiro (1930). Portevin, G. Histoire naturelle des Coleopteres de France. Encyc. Ent., Ser. A, 13, vii + 542 pp., 5 pis, 553 figs. (1931). Procter, W. Insects of Mount Desert, Maine. Biological Surv. Mt. Desert, pt. VII. Wistar Inst, Philadelphia. 566 pp., 12 figs. (1946). Riley, C. V. Enumeration of the Published Synopses, Catalogues and Lists of North American Insects (1888). Riley, W. A. Medical Entomology. 483 pp. McGraw-Hill, New York. (1938). Ross, H. H. Textbook of Entomology. 532 pp. Wiley & Sons, New York and Chapman & Hall, London (1948). Rousseau, E. Les larves et nymphes aquatiques des Insectes d'Europe. 1, 967 pp. (1921). Schulze, F. E, Editor. Das Tierreich. Berlin (1897- ). (The parts are listed separately.) Sharp, D. Insects. Cambridge Natural History, vols. 5 and 6, Macmillan & Co, New York and London (1895-99). Sharp, D, Editor. Fauna Hawaiiensis. 3 vols. Honolulu (1899-1913). Smart, J. Handbook for Identification of Insects of Medical Importance. Second Edition. British Mus. Nat. Hist. 295 pp. (1948). Smith, J. B. Catalogue of the Insects of New Jersey. Ann. Rept. New Jersey State Mus, 1909, 888 pp. (1910). Snodgrass, R. E. Studies on the Head of Mandibulate Insects. Comstock Pub. Co, Ithaca, N. Y. 125 pp., 37 figs. (1950). Swain, R. B. Orders and Major Families of North American Insects. 261 pp., 56 figs. Doubleday, Garden City, N. Y. (1948). Taschenberg, O. Bibliotheca Zoologica. Vol. 1 (1863); vols. 2 and 3 (1889- 90). (Literature of Entomology to the year 1880.) Thompson, M. T. Illustrated Catalogue of American Insect Galls. 116 pp. Nassau, N. Y. (1916). Tillyard, R. J. The Insects of Australia and New Zealand. 560 pp. Angus and Robertson, Sydney (1926). Tullgren, A. and Wahlgren, E. Svenska Insekter. Stockholm, 812 pp. (1920-1922). Weiss, H. B. Some Old Classifications of Insects. Canadian Ent, 47, pp. 369-376 (1915). 42 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Wilson, H. F., and Doner, M. H. Historical Development of Insect Classifica- tion. Madison, Wisconsin, 133 pp., 28 figs. (1937). Wolcott, G. N. An Economic Entomology of the West Indies. Ent. Soc. Porto Rico, San Juan, xviii + 688 pp., Ill figs. (1933). Wolf, B. Insects. In Animalium cavernorum catalogus, pp. 225-544. W. Junk, Lochem (1935-36). Wu, C. F. Catalogus insectorum Sinensium. Vols. 1-6, 4168 pp. Peking Nat. Hist. Bull. (1935-41). Wytsman, P., Editor. Genera Insectorum. Brussels (1902- ). (The many fascicles of this work are listed separately under the families and sub- families; each contains a synoptic key to genera and a catalogue of species of the family or subfamily treated.) Zimmerman, E. C. Insects of Hawaii. 5 vols. 1650 pp. Univ. Hawaii Press, Honolulu (1948- ). (The parts are listed separately.) Zoological Record. Zoological Society of London (1865- ). (Complete review of all literature in Zoology, year by year. The most complete and useful bibliographic index extant.) ORDER PROTURA (MIRIENT6MATA) Minute, slender, delicate, wingless, terrestrial, colorless or yellowish, blind species. Body bare; head pear-shaped, eyes and ocelli both absent; antennae absent or reduced to a tubercle; abdomen comprising eleven segments, the last three very short, the basal three segments furnished with styles, no cerci; mouthparts formed for sucking, but retracted within the head, the mandibles long and styliform; legs short, tarsi one- jointed, with a single claw. Younger stages with only nine abdominal segments. 1. Tracheae present, opening through two pairs of spiracles, one on mesothorax and one on meta thorax; all vestigial abdominal ap- pendages two-jointed; eighth segment of abdomen without pec- tines. (Eosentomon, widespr.) EOSENTOMID7E Tracheae and spiracles absent; vestigial appendage on third abdominal segment one-jointed; eighth segment of abdomen usually with a pair of pectines 2 2. Abdominal tergites without transverse sutures and laterotergites; each typical abdominal segment with a single complete transverse row of dorsal sets; pectines of eighth abdominal segment reduced or absent PROTENTCMIDjE a. Vestigial appendage on second abdominal segment two-jointed; eighth abdominal segment with pectines; front tarsi with sensory setae. (Proturentomon, Protentomon, widespr.) protentomin^; CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 43 Vestigial appendage on second abdominal segment one-jointed; eighth segment without pectines. (Microentomon, widespr.) MICROENTOMiN^ Typical abdominal terga each with one to three transverse sutures and a pair of laterotergites; each typical abdominal segment with two complete rows of dorsal setae; pectines on eighth segment not reduced. (Acerentomon, Acerentuloides, widespr.). (Figs. 4, 12). acerentomim; LITERATURE ON PROTURA Berlese, A. Monografia dei Myrientomata. Redia, 6 (1909). Conde, B. Protoures de 1'Afrique orientale brittanique. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 118, pp. 748-751 (1948). Ewing, H. E. New Genera and Species of Protura. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washing- ton, 23, pp. 193-202 (1921). Synonymy and Synopsis of the Genera of the Order Protura. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 49, pp. 159-166 (1936). Protura of North America. Ann. Ent. Soc. America, 33, pp. 495-551, 4 pis., 5 figs. (1940). Gisin, H. Protoures de la Suisse. Rev. Suisse Zool., 52, pp. 513-534, 7 figs. (1945). Lameere, A. Protura. In Precis de Zoologie. Publ. Inst. zool. Torley-Rous- seau, 4, pp. 154-158 (1934). Mills, H. B. Catalogue of the Protura. Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc, 27, pp. 125 — 130 (1932). Silvestri, F. Descrizione di un nuovo genere di insetti apterigoti rappresen- tanti di un nuovo ordine. Boll. Lab. Zool. Gen. Agrar. Portici., 1, (1907). Stach, }. Eosentomon armatum. (With list of known Protura.) Spraw. Kom. fizyogr., Krakow, 61, pp. 205-215 (1927). Strenzke, K. Norddeutsche Proturen. Zool. Jb., Syst, 75, pp. 73-102, 25 figs. (1942). Tuxen, S. L. Monographic der Proturen (Morphologie). Zeitschr. f. Morph. u. Oekol., 22, pp. 671-720 (1931). Danske Protura. Ent. Meddel., 17, pp. 306-311, 3 figs. (1931). Lebenszyklus und Entwicklung zweier Proturen-gattungen. K. Dansk. Videns. Selskab., Biol., 6, 49 pp., 74 figs. (1949). Womersley, H. Notes on the British Species of Protura. Ent. Monthly Mag., 63, pp. 140-148 (1927). Further Notes on the British Species of Protura. Ent. Monthly Mag., 64, pp. 113-115 (1928). A Preliminary Account of the Protura of Australia. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, 57, pp. 69-76 (1932). On Two New Species of Protura from Iowa, U. S. A. Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc, 33, pp. 219-223 (1938). Zimmerman, E. C. Protura. In Insects of Hawaii, 2, pp. 42-43 (1948). 44 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology LITERATURE ON APTERYGOTA, GENERAL Denis, R. Diploures, Protoures, Thysanoures. In Grasse, Traite de Zoologie, 9, pp. 112-276, 114 figs. (1949). Zimmerman, E. C. Thysanura and Entotrophi. Insects of Hawaii, 2, pp. 29-42 (1948). ORDER THYSANURA (APTERA, ECT6TROPH1, ECTOGNATHA) Moderate-sized or small, wingless, terrestrial insects of active habits. Body usually elongate, tapering behind, clothed with scales except in the earliest instars and in adults of a few subterranean forms. Antennae usually long, slender, with numerous joints. Head closely articulated with thorax. Compound eyes large and occupying most of the head capsule or small and lateral with a few large units (absent in a few subterranean forms). Three large ocelli or none. Mouthparts ex- ternal, generalized; mandibles with one or two articulation points; maxillae and labium large; palpi conspicuous, maxillary palpus with 5 or 7 segments, labial palpus with 3 segments. Thorax composed of three broad segments with rather large paranotal lobes, which may be closely appressed to the sides. Legs all similar; coxa large, sometimes bearing stylus; trochanter small but free; femur and tibia rather long; tarsus long, divided into 2 or 3 segments. Two tarsal claws, often with large median dactylopodite. Abdomen with ten similar segments visible dorsally; the minute eleventh bears a pair of long filamentous cerci and is developed as a long cerciform median structure which gives the abdomen the appearance of having three long, similar caudal filaments. Abdomen ventrally with simple segmental plates (fusion of coxopodites and ster- nite) or three closely fitted plates (median sternite and lateral diagonal coxopodites). Large paired styli present ventrally on two to eight ab- dominal segments; paired ventral sacs, visible when everted, often pres- ent. Ovipositor with only two pairs of valves. Penis well developed, rigid, never withdrawn into abdomen, as in higher insects. Metamorpho- sis slight. Silverfish, Bristle-tails, Rock-jumpers. 1. Body strongly convex dorsally; coxa not greatly flattened, not much larger than femur; in living families eyes very large, many faceted, contiguous; paired lateral ocelli and single median ocellus present; many species with two pairs of eversible sacs on several segments; most species with styli (exites) on at least metathoracic legs (Superfamily MACHILOIDEA) 2 Body strongly flattened dorso-ventrally; coxa greatly flattened, much larger than any other leg segment; eyes widely separated (rarely absent); no lateral or median ocelli; never with more than one CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 45 pair of ventral eversible sacs on any segment; never with styli (exites) on any coxx (Superfamily LEPISMATOIDEA) 3 Abdominal true sterna well developed, triangular, reaching at least one-half length of coxites on anterior segments; abdominal seg- ment V always with exsertile vesicles; many genera with two pairs of vesicles on some segments; with antennal scape and pedicel scaled or with two pairs of vesicles on some segments or both. Cosmopol. (Machilis, Pedetontus, Petrobius, Mesomachilis, Lepis- machilis). (Fig. 10) MACHILID^ Abdominal true sterna weakly developed, reaching less than one- fourth length of coxites on all segments; abdominal segment V Figs. 1-8. Protura, Thysanura, Entotrophi 1. Ncsomachilis (Tillyard) Meinertellidae. 2. Parajapyx, apex of abdomen (Silvestri) Japygidae. 3. Gastrothcus (Silvestri) Nicoletiidz. 4. Acerentomon (Silvestri) Acerentomidae. 5. Lepisma (Butler) Lepismatidac. 6. Campodea (Maxwell-Lefroy) Campodeidse. 7. Anajapyx (Silvestri) Projapygidae. 8. Japyx, from below (Berlese) Japygidae. 46 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology sometimes without exsertile vesicles; never more than one pair of vesicles on any segment; entire antenna scaleless. Cosmopol. (Meinertellus, Machilinus, Hypomachilodes, Machiloides, Neso- machilis). (Fig. 1) MEINERTELLID.E 3. Eyes always absent; scales usually absent; coxopodites of segments VIII and IX narrow, not covering base of ovipositor or parameres; most species ant or termite guests or living in a subterranean habitat, never domestic NICOLETIID./E a. Body form long, sub-cylindrical; usually scaleless; caudal filaments usually much longer than one-half body length; antenna usually more than two-thirds body length; width of head nearly as great as mesothorax. Subterranean or cavernicolous. Never ant or termite commensals. Widespr. (Nicoletia, Lepidospora, Trinemo- phora, Prosthecina) NICOLETIlN^ Body form oblong-oval or rapidly tapering toward rear; always with scales; caudal filaments usually less than one -half body length; antenna usually less than two-thirds body length; width of head hardly one-half width of mesothorax. Ant or termite commensals. Widespr. (Atelura, Grassiella, Atopatelura, Attatelura). ATELURlNyE Eyes always present; scales usually present; coxopodites of segments VIII and IX broad, covering base of ovipositor or parameres; most species free-living or domestic. (Fig. 9) . . LEPISMATID^E a. Head distinctly longer than prothorax; inner edge of lacinia smooth; scales always absent; antenna and caudal filaments each at least as long as body. Arabia, Sahara Des., S. America (Maindronia). MAINDRONIINjE Head distinctly shorter than prothorax; inner edge of lacinia with teeth and setae; scales always present after second or third instar; antenna and caudal filaments either shorter or longer than body. Domestic or free-living. Cosmopol. (Lepisma, Thermobia, Ctenolepisma, Isolepisma, Panlepisma, Heterolepisma, Acrotelsa). (Fig. 5) LEPISMATINjE LITERATURE ON THYSANURA Baer, H. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Thysanuren. Jenaische Zeitschr. Naturwiss., 48, pp. 1-92 (1912). Carpenter, G. H. The Apterygota of the Seychelles. Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., 33, B, pp. 1-70 (1916). Denis, J. R. Ordre des Thysanoures. In Grasse, P. P., Traite de Zoologie, 9, pp. 209-275 (1949). ' Escherich, K. Das System der Lepismatiden. Zoologica, Heft 43, 164 pp. (1905). CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 47 Handschin, E. Urinsekten oder Apterygota. Tierwelt Deutschlands, Lief. 16 (1929). Lubbock, J. Monograph of the Collembola and Thysanura. Ray Society, 276 pp. (1873). Silvestri, F. Contribute alia conoscenza dei Machilidae dell' America set- tentrionale. Boll. Lab. Zool. Gen. Agr. Portici, 5, pp. 324-350 (1911). Tisanuri finora noti del Messico. Boll. Lab. Zool. Gen. Agr. Portici, 6, pp. 204-221 (1912). Contributo alia conoscenza dei Machilidae del Giappone. Boll. Lab. Zool. Gen. Agr. Portici, 32, pp. 283-306 (1943). Slabaugh, R. E. A New Thysanuran, and a Key to the Domestic Species of Lepismatidae (Thysanura) found in the United States. Ent. News, 51, pp. 95-98 (1940). Stach, J. Die Lepismatiden-Fauna Agyptens. Ann. Musei Zool. Polonici, 11, pp. 27-111 (1935). Verhoeff, K. W. Uber Felsenspringer, Machiloidea, 4. Aufsatz: Systematik und Orthomorphose. Zool. Anz., 36, pp. 425-438 (1910). Womersley, H. Studies in Australian Thysanura. Trans. Roy. Soc. South Australia, 61, pp. 96-101; 166-172, 4 figs. (1937). Primitive Insects of South Australia. Handb. Flora Fauna South Australia (1939). Wygodzinsky, P. W. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Dipluren und Thysanuren der Schweiz. Denkschr. Schweiz. Naturf. Gesell., 74, pp. 107-227 (1941). Contribucao ao conhecimento da familia Machilidae do Mexico, do Brasil e da Argentina. Rev. Entomologia, 15, pp. 54-96 (1944). Sobre Nicoletia {Anelpistina) Silvestri, 1905 e Prosthecina Silvestri, 1933. Ciencia, 7, pp. 15-23 (1946). Contribucion al conocimiento de las Lepismatinae americanas. Acta Zool. Lilloana, 6, pp. 215-227 (1948). ORDER ENT6TROPHI {ENTOGNATHA, DIPLURA, APTERA, DlCELLtRA) Small to medium-sized, slender, unpigmented; always wingless. Sub- terranean or cavernicolous, very active insects. Body without scaly covering (rarely with a few scales). Head large, prognathous, freely articulated with the thorax. Antennae long, moniliform with numerous true segments. Eyes and ocelli absent. Mouthparts deeply retracted into the head, only the tips being visible; mandible with a single point of articulation; maxilla generalized, with- 3-jointed palpus; labium reduced, palpi tiny or lost. Thorax with three subequal segments; no prominent paranotal lobes. Legs all similar; tarsus undivided; two claws; never with coxal stylus. Abdomen with ten conspicuous segments, terminated by a pair of well-developed cerci either long, many-jointed, and fila- mentous or short, unjointed and forceps-like or short, few-jointed, and straight; no median caudal filament. Abdomen ventrally with paired 48 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology styli and exsertile sacs on some segments. Ovipositor, penis, and promi- nent gonopophyses always absent. Metamorphosis slight. 1. Abdomen terminated by strong, heavily sclerotized, undivided for- ceps; antennal joints broader than long; styli on first abdominal segment; tenth abdominal segment at least twice as long as ninth. Subterranean. Cosmopolitan. (Japyx, Parajapyx, Heterojapyx, Evalljapyx, Dinjapyx) (Figs. 2, 8) JAPYGID^ Abdomen terminated by delicate cerci having few or many joints; tenth abdominal segment little longer than ninth 2 2. Cerci usually as long as abdomen, with many pseudosegments, not bearing glandular duct with opening at tip; antennae usually longer than head and thorax combined. Usually more than 4 mm. long when mature. Subterranean or cavernicolous. Cosmopolitan. (Campodea, Eutrichocampa, Lepidocampa, Haplocampa, Hemi- campa, Metriocampa, Plusiocampa, Parallocampa) (Fig. 6, 13). CAMPODEID,E Cerci less than half as long as abdomen, with less than ten joints, each with an internal duct leading from glands in the abdomen to the tip of the cercus; antennae shorter than head and thorax combined. Always minute (under 4 mm. exclusive of antennae and cerci). Subterranean. (Projapyx, Afr., S.Am.; Anajapyx, S. Europe, Afr., Mexico; Symphylurinus, S.Am., Asia; Procam- podea, Italy, Sardinia) (Fig. 7) PROJAPfGHXE Figs. 9-13. Protura, Thysanura, Entotrophi, Symphyla 9. Thermobia, middle leg. Lepismatidje. 10. Machilis, hind leg. Machilidse. 11. Hanseniella, front leg. Scutigerellida:. 12. Acerentulus, middle leg. Acerentomidae. 13. Campodea, middle leg. Campodeidae. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 49 LITERATURE ON ENTOTROPHI Carpenter, G. H. The Apterygota of the Seychelles. Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., 33, B, pp. 1-70 (1916). Cook, O. F. New Dicellura. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, 4, pp. 222-229 (1899). Denis, J. R. Sur la faune francaise des Apterygotes. Xle note: Diplures, avec tableau de determination des especes franchises. Bull. Soc. Zool. France, 55 (1930). Ordre des Diploures. In Grasse, P. P., Traite de Zoologie, 9, pp. 160-185 (1949). Handschin, E. Urinsekten oder Apterygota. Tierwelt Deutschlands, Lief. 16 (1929). Lubbock, J. Monograph of the Collembola and Thysanura. Ray Society. (1873). Silvestri, F. Nuova contribuzione alia conoscenza dell' Anajapyx vesiculosus Silv. Boll. Lab. Zool. Gen. Agr. Pordci, 1, pp. 3-15 (1905). Nuovi Generi e Nuovi Specie de Campodeidae (Thysanura) dell' America settentrionale. Boll. Lab. Zool. Gen. Agr. Pordci, 6, pp. 5-25 (1912). Contribuzione alia conoscenza dei Campodeidae (Thysanura) d'Europa. Boll. Lab. Zool. Gen. Agr. Pordci, 6, pp. 110-147 (1912). Japygidae dell' Estremo Oriente. Boll. Lab. Zool. Gen. Agr. Pordci, 22, pp. 49-80 (1928). Contribuzione alia conoscenza degli Japygidae (Thysanura) dell' Africa occidentale. Boll. Lab. Zool. Gen. Agr., Pordci, 23, pp. 149-196 (1929). Contributions to a knowledge of the Indo-Malayan Japygidae. Rec. Indian Mus., 32, pp. 439-489 (1930). Japygidae della regione australiana. Boll. Lab. Zool. Pordci, 23, pp. 210— 226, 13 figs. (1930). Campodeidae dell' Estremo Oriente. Boll. Lab. Zool. Gen. Agr., Portici, 25, pp. 286-320 (1931). Nuovi contributi alia conoscenza della Fauna delle Isole italiane dell' Egeo. II. Thysanura-Entotropha. Boll. Lab. Zool. Gen. Agr., Portici, 27, pp. 61-111 (1932). Quarto contributo alia conoscenza dei Campodeidae del Nord America. Boll. Lab. Zool. Gen. Agr., Portici, 27, pp. 156-204 (1933). Contribuzione alia conoscenza dei Projapygidae. Boll. Lab. Zool. Gen. Agr., Portici, 30, pp. 41-74 (1936). Some Japygidae in the Museum of Comparative Zoology. Psyche, 54, pp. 209-229 (1947). Sur les Japygidae de Belgique. Bull. Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg., 84, pp. 211— 217 (1948). Contribuzione alia conoscenza degli Japygidae. Rend. Accademia XL, (3), 27, pp. 1-115 (1948). Descrizioni di alcuni Japyginae del Nord America. Boll. Lab. Ent. Agr., Portici, 8, pp. 118-136 (1948). Japyginae della faune italiana finora note. Boll. Lab. Ent. Agr., Portici, 8, pp. 236-296 (1948). 50 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Specie di Japygidae finora raccolti nel Messico. Boll. Lab. Ent. Agr., Portici, 8, pp. 297-320 (1948). Distribuzione geografica di alcuni piccoli Arthropodi. I. Procampodea brevicauda Silv. Boll. Zool., 15, pp. 19-24 (1948). Womersley, H. Primitive Insects of South Australia. Handb. Flora Fauna South Australia, 322 pp. (1939). Wygodzinsky, P. W. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Dipluren und Thysanuren der Schweiz. Denkschr. Schweiz. Naturf. Gesell., 74, pp. 107-227 (1941). Uma especie nova de Symphylurinus do Brasil. Rev. Entomologia, 12, pp. 531-534 (1941). Contribucao ao conhecimento da familia Campodeidae do Mexico. An. Esc. Nac. Cienc. Biol., 3, pp. 367-404 (1944). ORDER COLLEMBOLA Small to minute, soft-bodied wingless species, entotrophic, possessing four antennal segments, each with segmental musculature. Body globular — or subcylindrical to fusiform — rarely dorsoventrally compressed. Thorax of three segments, prothorax often reduced. Abdomen of six segments, frequently more or less ankylosed, with specialized ventral appendages on the first and third, and on either the fourth or fifth segments, and an unpaired gonopore located on the fifth segment. A median ventral projection, the ventral tube, apically bilobate and fre- quently possessing two extrusible tubes, always present on the first segment. Furcula or springing apparatus typically present on the fourth, or apparently the fifth, segment, with a catch or tenaculum for holding this structure on the third segment. Furcula composed of three portions: a large single basal piece, the manubrium; a pair of median segments, the dentes; and a pair of sclerotized apical mucrones. Legs similar in shape, typically possessing two subcoxal joints and a fused tibiotarsal segment. Tarsal claw single, usually with an empodial appendage. Eyes simple, discrete, typically sixteen in number, situated in dark pigmented fields directly behind the antennae. Often with a pair of lobate or papillate postantennal organs. No metamorphosis and having postmaturation moults. Head prognathous to hypognathous. Tracheae usually absent; when present opening by a single pair of simple apertures in the cervical region. Spring tails. 1. Head prognathous or hypognathous, body more or less elongate, never sub-spherical, segmentation distinct. (Suborder ARTHRO- PLEONA) 2 Head hypognathous, body sub-spherical, segmentation indistinct or obsolete. (Suborder SYMPHYPLEONA) 8 2. Pronotum well developed, with setae; imbrication of segments in- distinct or wanting; furcula, when present, located on the fourth abdominal segment and lacking setae on the ventral surface of the manubrium. (Section PODUROM6RPHA) 3 CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 51 Pronotum reduced, lacking setae, united with the mesonotum, im- brication of body segments usually distinct; furcula when present tends to be displaced to the fifth abdominal segment. (Section ENTOMOBRYOM6RPHA) 4 3. Head distinctly hypognathous. (Podura) PODORIDjE Head more or less prognathous HYPOGASTRURIDjE a. Lacking apertures in body wall (pseudocelli); sensory organ of third antennal segment simple, consisting of two small, variously modi- fied, central sensory pegs, and two or more, more or less setiform, lateral sensory hairs, and without protecting papillae; fourth antennal segment with a large apical bulb b Pseudocelli present (except Pachytullbergid); sense organ of the third antennal segment complex (see fig. 15) consisting of two central sensory rods, plus other spherical, tubular, or variously club-shaped organs, usually situated behind several large protect- ing papillae. Apical bulb of fourth antennal segment very small or lacking. (Onychiurus) ONYCHIURIN^E b. Mandibles with well-developed molar plate or, if lacking, with quadrangular (fig. 14a) or short, claw-like (fig. 143) head on maxillae; maxillae never elongate, lamellate, or needle-like. (Hy- pogastrura, Ceratophysella, Willemia, Friesea, Brachystomella). HYPOGASTRURIN^E Mandible often reduced or absent; when present, without well- developed molar plate (fig. 15a); maxillae variously elongate, needle-like, or lamellate (fig. 153), never short claw-like or quadrangular. (Neanura, Anurida, Paranura, Pseudachorutes). NEANURiN^E- 4. Lacking differentiated short, erect, smooth setae on the trochanter (trochanteral organ); ventral border of the claw simple, empodial appendage with no more than three lamellae 5 Differentiated trochanteral organ present; ventral edge of the claw split at its basal region; empodial appendage with four lamellae or with a modification of four lamellae. (Fig. 16). (Orchesella, Entomobrya, Lepidocyrtus, Paronella, Cyphoderus). ENTOMOBRYID^E 5. Head hypognathous, tracheae present. (Actaletes). ACTALETID,E Head semi-prognathous, tracheae absent 6 6. Postantennal organ typically present, furcula-bearing segment sub- equal to, or slightly smaller than, preceding segment 7 Postantennal organ typically absent, furcula-bearing segment much shorter than preceding segment. (Tomocerus) (Fig. 17). TOMOCERID^E 52 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology 7. Without scales and without long uniformly feathered setae (bothro- trichia) on the thorax. (Isotoma, Proisotoma, Folsomia, Tetra- canthella, Isotomuris) ISOT6MID^ With scales and/or bothrotrichia on the thorax. (Oncopodura). ONCOPODtJRID^ 8. Thorax nearly as large or larger than abdomen; dorsum of first thoracic segment at approximately the same level as vertex of head; antennae much shorter than head, inserted near or below its middle; lacking bothrotrichia and eyes. (Neelus, Neelides, Megalothorax) NEELIDiE Thorax much smaller than abdomen; first thoracic segment con- siderably below level of vertex; antennae at most only slightly shorter than head and inserted above the middle; eyes and bothro- trichia typically present 9 9. Antennal segment four longer than segment three. (Fig. 19). (Sminthurus, Allacama, Sminthurides, Arrhopalites, Bourletiella). sminthurim; Antennal segment four much shorter than segment three. (Dicyr- toma, Ptendthrix) DICYRTOMID^E LITERATURE ON COLLEMBOLA Absolon, K. and M. Ksenemann. Ueber hohlenbewohnende Kollembola. Stud. Geb. allgem. Karstforsch. Briinn, 16, pp. 11-16 (1942). Bagnall, R. S. On the Classification of Onychiuridae (Collembola), with particular reference to the genus Tullbergia Lubbock. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (10)15, pp. 236-242, 10 figs. (1935). Contributions toward a Knowledge of the Tullbergiidae. I— III. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist, (11) 14, pp. 435-444 (1947). Contributions toward a Knowledge of the Onychiuridae. I-IV. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (11)14, pp. 631-642 (1948). Bonet, F. Colembolos de la Republica Argentina. Eos, 9, pp. 123-194, 5 pis., 23 figs. (1934). Sobre la clasificacion de los Oncopoduridae (Collembola), con descripcion de especies nuevas. An. Esc. nac. Cienc. biol., 3, pp. 127-153, 22 figs. (1943). Monografia de la familia Neelidae. Rev. Soc. mexicana Hist. Nat., 8, pp. 133-192, 69 figs. (1947). Bonet, F. and C. Tellez. Un nuevo genero de Esminturidos. Rev. Soc. mexicana Hist. Nat., 8, pp. 193-203, 19 figs. (1947). Buitendijk, A. M. Fauna van Nederland. Collembola. Leiden Afl., 11, 99 pp., 24 figs. (1941). Delamare-Deboutteville, C. Les Collemboles. Caracteres generaux. Tableaux des principales families europeennes. L'Entomologiste, 3, pp. 34-37, 15 figs. (1947). Recherches sur les collemboles termitophiles et myrmecophiles. Arch. Zool. Expt. Gen., 85, pp. 261-425, 214 figs. (1948). CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 53 Denis, J. R. Collemboles de Costa Rica. Boll. Lab. Zool. Portici, 25, pp. 69- 170, 211 figs. (1931); ibid., 27, pp. 222-322, 156 figs. (1933). Sur la faune francaise des Apterygotes, XII. Arch. Zool. Expt. Gen., 74, pp. 357-383, 9 figs. (1932). Edinger, O. H., Jr. Sminthuridae of Southern California. Journ. Ent. Zool., 29, pp. 1-17, 3 pis. (1937). Folsom, J. W. Tomocerinae of North America. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 46, pp. 451-472 (1914). North American Collembolous Insects of the Subfamilies Achoreutinse, Neanurins and Podurinae. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 50, pp. 477-525 (1916). Subfamily Onychiurinae. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 53, pp. 637-659 (1917). Nearctic Isotomidae. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 168, 144 pp., 39 pis. (1937). Gisin, H. Hilfstabellen zum Bestimmen der holarktischen Collembolen. Verh. naturf. Ges. Basel, 55, pp. 1-130 (1943). Materialien zur Revision der holarktischen Collembolen. Mitt, schweiz. ent. Ges., 19, pp. 121-156, 21 figs. (1944). Guthrie, J. E. The Collembola of Minnesota. Geol. Nat. Hist. Surv. Minne- sota, ser. 4, 110 pp. (1903). Handschin, E. Die Onychiurinen der Schweiz. Verh. naturf. Ges. Basel, 32, pp. 1-37 (1920). Collembolen aus Palastina, nebst einem Beitrag zur Revision der Gattung Cyphoderus. Rev. suisse Zool., 49, pp. 401-450, 11 figs. (1942). Lameere, A. Collembola. In Precis de Zoologie. Publ. Inst. zool. Torley- Rousseau, 4, pp. 158-173 (1934). Linnaniemi, W. M. Die Apterygotenfauna Finlands. I. Allgemeiner Teil. Acta Soc. Scient. Fennicse, 34, 130+XII pp.; II. Spezieller Teil. 40, 357 pp., 16 pis. (1907-12). Lubbock, J. Monograph of the Collembola and Thysanura. Ray. Soc. London (1873). Maynard, E. A. Monograph of Collembola of New York State. Comstock Pub. Co., Ithaca, N. Y. 362 pp., 671 figs. (1951). Mills, H. B. Monograph of the Collembola of Iowa. College Press, Ames, Iowa, vii+143 pp., 12 pis. (1934). Perrier, R. Collemboles de la France. Faune de France, 3, pp. 30—40, 44 figs. (1934). Salmon, J. T. The Collembolan Fauna of New Zealand. Trans. Royal Soc. New Zealand, 70, pp. 282-431 (1941). Keys and Bibliography to the Collembola. Zool. Publ. Victoria Univ. College, No. 8, 82 pp. (1951). Stach, J. Species of Isotomurus occurring in European Caves. Acta Mus. Hist. Nat. Krakow, No. 2, 14 pp. (1946). The Apterygotan Fauna of Poland in Relation to the World Fauna of this Group of Insect. Family Isotomidae. Acta Monographica Musei Historic Naturalis, Krakow, 1947, pp. 1-485; Families Neogastruridae and Brachystomellidae. 1949, 341 pp., 35 pis.; Families Anuridae and Pseudachorutidae. 1949, 119 pp., 15 pis. (1947-1949). Womersley, H. Collembola of Ireland. Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., 39B, pp. 160— 202 (1930). Preliminary Account of the Collembola — Symphypleona of Australia. 54 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology •o°oooo. 156 15 Figs. 14-19. Collcmbola 14. Hypogastrura (Stach) Hypogastrurinae. 14a. Brachystomella, maxilla (Stach) Hypogastrurinae. 14b. Xenyllodes, maxilla (Stach) Hypogastrurinae. 15. Onychiurus, sensory organ on third antennal segment (Folsom) Onychiurinae. 15a. Anurida, mandibles (Stach) Neanurinse. 15b. Anurida, maxilla (Stach) Neanurinae. 16. Entomobrya (Folsom) Entomobryidae. 17. Tomocerus (Folsom) Tomocerid«e. 18. Oncopodura (Bonet) Neelidae. 19. Sminthurides (Folsom and Mills) Sminthuridz. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 55 Pamph. Counc. Sci. Ind. Res. Australia, No. 34, 47 pp., 19 figs. (1932). Preliminary Account of the Collembola — Arthropleona of Australia. Trans. Roy. Soc. South Australia, 57, pp. 48-77 (1933); 58, pp. 37-47, 27 figs. (1934). On the Collembolan Fauna of New Zealand. Trans. Roy. Soc. New Zealand, 66, pp. 316-328, 2 figs. (1936). Primitive Insects of South Australia. Silverfish, Springtails, and their Allies. Adelaide. 322 pp., 1 pi., 84 figs. (1939). Yosn, R. Isotomid Collembola of Japan. Tenthredo, 2, pp. 348-392, 23 figs. (1939). Zimmerman, E. C. Collembola. Insects of Hawaii, 2, pp. 43-71 (1948). ORDER PLECTOPTERA (EPHEMEROPTERA, EPHEMERIDA, AGNATHA) Delicate insects with short, filiform antennae and vestigial mouth- parts; abdomen slender, bearing two or three long, many-jointed caudal filaments; four wings, usually with very complex venation. Head not very freely movable, with the compound eyes and three ocelli present; antennae with two large basal joints and a bristle-like, indistinctly jointed terminal portion. Prothorax more or less free, small or very small; mesothorax large. Fore wings much larger than the hind ones, usually with many longitudinal veins and a great number of cross- veins; commonly with numerous short longitudinal veins near the margin that are not attached at the base; media more complex than in other living orders, its anterior, convex branch preserved; hind wings often very small or even absent. Abdomen slender, usually cylindrical or tapering, with ten segments. Legs weak; tarsi usually with five or four joints. Metamorphosis incomplete, the nymph aquatic and provided with abdominal gills and three caudal filaments. Aerial form emerging from the nymph as a subimago which is similar to the imago, but which molts when it transforms to the imago. Imaginal life very short. Mayflies. Adults 1. Base of media (Mi +2 ) in fore wing strongly divergent from Cui at base; hind tarsi with four movable joints, or less; if a fifth joint is indicated it is immovably united to the tibia. (Superfamily EPHEMEROIDEA) 7 2 Base of media and Cui parallel at base or very weakly divergent; tarsi with four or five freely movable joints 5 2. Subcosta in fore wing concealed in a fold of the wing membrane, visible only at the base; branches of the radius and media ap- proximated in pairs; wings dull, translucent; legs of female short and weak; tibiae and tarsi of male transversely striated; only 56 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology two caudal filaments. (Palingenia, Anagenesia, Palmare; Pletho- genesia, Indoaustr.) PALINGENilD^E Subcosta completely developed, visible for its entire length 3 3. Wings translucent, subopaque in the male, entirely opaque in the female; hind margin of wings without unattached veinlets; legs weak, the front pair sometimes long in the male; hind legs al- most always short and weak. (Euthyplocia, Neotrop., Ethiop.; Exeuthyplocia, Povilla, Ethiop.; Campsurus, Am.; Polymitarcys, widespr.) (EPHORONlDtf) POLYMITARCID^E Wings transparent, shining; margin of wings, especially the hind pair, with numerous short unattached veinlets; legs strong, func- tional 4 4. First branch of cubitus in fore wing simple, not branched, but connected with the wing margin by numerous crossveins; fork of R2 and R4 in hind wing much longer than its stalk. (Ephem- era, Holarc, Indoaustr.; Hexagenia, Am., Ethiop.; Eatonica, Ethiop.; Pentagenia, Nearc.) EPHEMERID^E First branch of cubitus in fore wing forked; not connected to the wing margin by crossveins; fork of R2 and R 4 in hind wing shorter or no longer than its stalk. (Potamanthus, Neoephemera, Holarc; Rhoenanthus, Palaearc, Indoaustr.; Potamanthodes, In- domal.) POTAMANTHID^ 5. Hind tarsi with four freely movable joints; if with the indication of a fifth joint, this is immovably attached to the tibia. (Super- family BAETOIDEA) 6 Hind tarsus with five freely movable joints 10 6. Subcosta in fore wing fused with the radius or wanting, at most visible at the base; wings milky or grayish, with very simple venation, the fore wing with only four to seven longitudinal veins, with crossveins in only from two to five of the anterior spaces; hind wing without or with very few crossveins which are restricted to the anterior part; large or medium sized species. (Fig. 22). (Oligoneuria, Palaearc, Neotrop., Ethiop.; Homo- neuria, Lachlania, Holarc; Spaniophlebia, Noya, Neotrop.; Elas- soneiiria, Ethiop.) OLIGONEURlID^ Subcosta in fore wing free, well developed and visible for its entire length 7 7. Anterior median vein in fore wing (MA) clearly forked 8 Anterior median vein in fore wing, simple, not forked, although behind it are two free veins which are not attached at the base (Fig. 21); fore wing usually with few crossveins; hind wings very small and narrow, sometimes absent, with at most two or three longitudinal veins. (Cloeon, cosmop.; Baetis, widespr.; Centroptilum, Holarc, Ethiop.; Callibaetis, Am.) . . . BAETIDiE CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 57 8. Wings milky or infuscated, ciliate on the hind margin; hind wings absent, although sometimes present in the subimago; no un- attached intercalated veins; frequently with only a few cross- veins; small species. (Fig. 24). (Caenis, widespr.; Tricoryphodes, Leptohyphes, Am.; Leptohyphodes, Neotrop.; Tricorythus, Ethiop.). (Including PROSOPlSTOMATlDAi?). (BRACHY- CERCID/E) CAENIDjE Wings hyaline; hind wings almost always present; wings with numerous crossveins 9 Figs. 20-26. Plcctoptcra 20. Baetisca, wings (Eaton) Baetiscidae. 21. Baetis, wings (Eaton) Baetidz. 22. Oligoneuria, wings (Eaton) Oligoneuriidae. 23. Ephemerella, wings (Eaton) Ephemerellidae. 24. Caenis, wing (Eaton) Caenidje. 25. Chirotenetes, wings (Needham) Siphlurida:. 26. Atalophlebia, wings (Eaton) Leptophlebiids. 58 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology 9. Second branch of cubitus in the fore wing usually widely separated at base from the first branch, but lying close to the first anal vein; no unattached intercalated veins between the media and cubitus and none in front of the posterior branch of the media. (Fig. 26). (Thraulus, Palaearc, Neotrop., Indoaustr.; Atalo- phlebia, Neotrop., Indoaustr.; Habrophlebia, Leptophlebia, Hol- arc; Adenophlebia, Ethiop.) LEPTOPHLEBlIDvE Second branch of cubitus in fore wing approximate at base to the first branch, but widely separated from the first anal vein; several (usually two) unattached intercalated veins between the media and cubitus and also in front of the posterior branch of the media. (Fig. 23). (Ephemerella, Chitonophora, Holarc; Drunella, Nearc; Melanomerella, Neotrop.; Teloganodes, Indoaustr.). EPHEMERELLIDjE 10. First and second branches of the cubitus running more or less parallel to the first anal vein; Cui and Cu2 connected by cross- veins, but the cubital area without paired crossveins or sinuous veins extending to the wing margin; hind wings rounded, with numerous long intercalated veins extending to the posterior part of the wing margin; prothorax very small. (Fig. 20). (Baetisca, Nearc.) BAETISCID^E First and second branches of the cubitus very close together at base and strongly divergent apically, the second branch much shorter than the first and strongly curved backwards towards apex, hind wings oval; pronotum well developed 11 11. Cubital area of fore wing with a number of more or less sinuous veins extending from the first branch of the cubitus to the wing margin. (Fig. 25). (Ameletus, Holarc, Austr.; Chirotonetes, Siphlurus ( = Siphloniirus), Holarc; Siphlonisca, Nearc; Onis- cigaster, Indoaustr.). (SIPHLONURIDAE) SIPHLURIDiE Cubital area of fore wing without oblique sinuous veins extending from the first branch of the cubitus to the wing margin, but with from two to four straight unattached veins more or less parallel to the branches of the cubitus 12 12. Only two unattached intercalated veins in the cubital area of the fore wing; if sometimes with a second pair indicated, these are short and lie close to the second branch of the cubitus; two or three caudal filaments. (Ametropus, Metropus, Palaearc). AMETROP6DID.E Four unattached intercalated veins in the cubital area of the fore wing, the longer pair lying close to the second branch of the cubitus; two caudal filaments. (Heptagenia, Epedrus, Arthroplea, Holarc; iron, Nearc, Ecdyurus, Palaearc, Am.; Rhithrogena, Palaearc; Atopopus, Indoaustr.). (Including ARTHROPL&I- D/E). {ECDYONtJRIDAi) HEPTAGENilDiE CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 59 Nymphs 1. Abdominal gills visible at their insertion above or on the sides of the abdomen 2 Gills entirely concealed by a large shield-like prolongation of the thorax behind, which covers most of the abdomen. (Fig. 27). Imago unknown. (Prosopistoma, Palaearc, Ethiop.). PROSOPISTOMATID.E 2. Mandibles usually very long and extended anteriorly; six or seven pairs of plumose gills, the first sometimes much reduced; legs stout 3 Mandibles very short, not extended anteriorly; gills not plumose; legs slender 6 3. Mandibles extremely large and projecting far beyond the head in front; gills extended dorsally over the abdomen 4 Mandibles much shorter, but slightly projecting in front of the head; gills extended laterally, away from the abdomen. (Fig. 29). POTAMANTHIDiE 4. Front with two tubercles anteriorly; mandibles curved outwards at tips; antennae with long cilia EPHEMERID./E Front without tubercles; mandibles curved downwards at tips; an- tennae without or with short cilia 5 5. Body short and stout; six pairs of similar gills; caudal filaments short, the median one shorter than the lateral ones. (Fig. 33). PALINGENIIDjE Body long and slender; seven pairs of gills, the first pair much reduced in size; anal filaments long, of equal length. (Fig. 28.) polymitarcim; 6. Body strongly flattened, the head orbicular, or more or less trans- verse, the eyes placed on its dorsal surface 7 Body more or less cylindrical, not or very slightly flattened, the eyes placed at the sides of the head 8 7. Gills uniform, extending from the sides of the abdomen; anal fila- ments at least as long as the body HEPTAGENilDiE First pair of gills inserted on the under side of the first abdominal segment, the six following pairs extended from the sides of the abdomen OLIGONEURIID^E 8. Lateral caudal filaments (cerci) fringed on both edges 9 Lateral caudal filaments ciliated on the inner border only 11 9. Seven pairs of gills, inserted laterally at the sides of the abdomen; sometimes all are filamentous or the first is much reduced and the others leaf-like. (Fig. 32) LEPTOPHLEBIID^E Five or six pairs of gills, inserted dorsally at the sides of the abdo- men 10 60 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Figs. 27-34. Plectoptera, Nymphs 27. Prosopistoma, nymph (Rousseau) Prosopistomatidx. 28. Polymitarcys, nymph (Rousseau) Polymitarcidae. 29. Potamanthus, nymph (Rousseau) Potamanthidz. 30. Ephemerella, nymph (Rousseau) Ephemerellidae. 31. Baetis, nymph (Rousseau) Baetidae. 32. Habrophlebia, nymph (Rousseau) Leptophlebiidae. 33. Palingenia, nymph (Rousseau) Palingeniidae. 34. Tricorythus, nymph (Rousseau) Caenidat. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 61 10. Six pairs of gills, the first very small, the second greatly enlarged and covering the following pairs which bear a long fringe. (Fig. 34) CAENIDiE Five pairs of gills, the last or the last two pairs not visible. (Fig. 30) EPHEMERELLID^E 11. Body cylindrical; head bent downwards; hind corners of abdominal segments not produced. (Fig. 31) BAETID^ Body more or less flattened; head horizontal or nearly so; hind corners of abdominal segments produced backwards to form a tooth-like projection 12 12. Claws not longer than the tibiae SIPHLURIDiE Claws of four posterior legs stout, as long as their tibiae, those of the front legs bifid at tips AMETROPODID^E LITERATURE ON PLECTOPTERA Balthasar, V. Arthropleidae, eine neue Familie der Ephemeropteren. Zool. Anz., 120, pp. 204-230, 15 figs. (1937). Barnard, K. H. South African May-flies. Trans. Roy. Soc. South Africa, 20, pp. 201-259, 48 figs. (1932). Berner, L. Mayflies of Florida. Univ. Florida Sci. Ser., 4, No. 4, xii-|-267 pp., 24 pis., 88 figs. (1950). Chopra, B. Indian Ephemeroptera: Ephemeroidea. Rec. Indian Mus., 29, pp. 91-138 (1927). Despax, R. Ephemeropteres. In Grasse, Traite de Zoologie, 9, pp. 277-309, 20 figs. (1949). Eaton, A. E. Revisional monograph of recent Ephemeridae. Trans. Linn. Soc. London, (2), 3, (1883-85). Ephemeridae. In Biologia centrali-Americana, pp. 1-16 (1892). Gros, A. J. and J. A. Lestage. Contribution a l'etude des larves des Ephemer- opteres. Ann. Biol. Lacust., 15, pp. 123, 133, 136, 161 (1927). Hsu, Yin-chi. The Mayflies of China. Peking Nat. Hist. Bull., 11, pp. 129— 148, 11 figs. (1936). Kimmins, D. E. Key to British Species of Ephemeroptera and Genera of Nymphs. Sci. Publ. Freshwater Biol. Assoc. British Empire, No. 7, 64 pp., 36 figs. (1942). Klapalek, F. Ephemerida: Siisswasserfauna Deutschlands, Lief. 8 (1909). Lameere, A. Ephemeroptera. In Precis de Zoologie. Publ. Inst. zool. Torley- Rousseau, 4, pp. 174-212 (1935). Lestage, J. A. Notes sur les Ephemeres de la "Monographical Revision" de Eaton. Ann. Soc. Ent. Belgique, 64, pp. 33-60 (1924). Les Ephemeropteres de la Belgique. Bull. Ann. Soc. Ent. Belgique, 68-69 (several parts). Contribution a l'etude des larves des Ephemeres palearctiques. Ann. Biol. Lacust., 8, pp. 213-457 (1918). La familie des Leptophlebiidae. Miss. Biol. Beige Bresil, Brussels, 2, pp. 249-258 (1930). Needham, J. G. Ephemeridae of New York. Bull. New York State Mus., No. 86, pp. 17-62 (1905). 62 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Needham, J. G., J. R. Traver and Yin-Chi Hsu. The Biology of Mayflies. xiv + 759 pp., 40 pis., 168 figs. Comstock Publ. Co., Ithaca, New York (1935). Perrier, R. Ephemeres de la France. Faune de France, 3, pp. 41-50, 35 figs. (1934). Phillips, J. S. Revision of New Zealand Ephemeroptera. Trans. New Zea- land Inst., 61, pp. 271-390, 18 pis., 125 figs. (1930). Studies of New Zealand Mayfly Nymphs. Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 79, pp. 399-422, 8 pis. (1931). Rousseau, E. Les larves et nymphes aquatiques des insectes d'Europe, Vol. 1, pp. 162-273 (1921). Schoenemund, E. Plectoptera. Tierwelt Deutschlands, 19, 110 pp., 186 figs. (1930). Seeman, T. M. Dragonflies, Mayflies and Stoneflies of southern California. Pomona Journ. Ent. and Zool., 19, pp. 1-69 (1927). Spieth, H. T. The Genus Stenonema. Ann. Ent. Soc. America, 40, pp. 87- 122 (1947). Tillyard, R. J. The Trout-food Insects of Tasmania. Part II. — A Monograph of the Mayflies of Tasmania. Pap. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasmania, 1935, pp. 23-59, 1 pi., 33 figs. (1935). Traver, J. R. Heptagenina? of North America. Journ. New York Ent. Soc, 41, pp. 105-125 (1933). Mayflies of North Carolina. Journ. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc., 47, pp. 85- 236, 13 pis. (1932); 48, pp. 141-206, 1 pi. (1933). Notes on Brazilian Mayflies. Bol. Mus. Nac. Rio de Janeiro, (N.S.) Zool., 22, 53 pp., 8 figs. (1944). Notes on Neotropical Mayflies. Parts I-III. Rev. Ent., Rio de Janeiro, 17, pp. 418-436, 18 figs.; 18, pp. 149-160, 22 figs.; 370-395, 39 figs. (1947). Tumpel, R. Die Geradeflugler Mitteleuropas. (Plectoptera, pp. 73-108) (1901). _ Ulmer, G. Ubersicht iiber die Gattungen der Ephemeropteren. Stetdner Ent. Zeit., 81, pp. 97-144 (1920). Verzeichnis der deutschen Ephemeropteren. Konowia, 6, pp. 234-262 (1927). Ephemeroptera. In Tierwelt Mitteleuropas, 4, Lief, lb, pp. Ill, 1-43 (1929). Die Trichopteren, Ephemeropteren und Plecopteren des arktischen Gebietes. Fauna arctica, 6, pp. 219-222 (1932). Revised Key to Genera of Plectoptera. Peking Nat. Hist. Bull., 7, pp. 195-218, 2 pis. (1933). ORDER ODONATA (LIBELLULdlDEA, PARANEUR6PTERA) Slender predatory insects, usually of large or very large size and usually strong fliers; head mobile, eyes large, three ocelli; antenna? minute, four- to seven-jointed; mouth inferior, mandibles strong, maxillary palpi one- jointed, labial palpi two-jointed; prothorax small but free, meso- and CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 63 metathorax fused, oblique; cerci one-jointed; legs not large, similar, usually armed with spines, placed far forward, tarsi three-jointed; wings four, nearly alike, elongate, membranous, net-veined, not folded, with characteristic nodus, arculus and triangle (see Figs. 41, 42). Abdomen long and narrow, cylindrical or flattened, sometimes clubbed at apex; ovipositor sometimes complete; male sexual apparatus attached to the second sternite. Metamorphosis considerable, the nymphs aquatic, no resting pupal stage. Damsel flies, Dragon flies. Figs. 35-40. Odonata 35. Lestes (Garman) Lestidae. 36. Chromagrion, base of fore wing (Garman) Coenagrionidae. 37. Hemiphlebia, wing (Needham) Hemiphlebiidae. 38. Megalestes, wing (Needham) Synlestidx. 39. Mecistogaster, wing (Needham) Pseudostigmatidae. 40. Pseudagrion, wing (Tillyard) Coenagrionida:. Adults 1. Disoidal cell in fore wing never divided by a vein, although it is rarely divided in the hind wing; wings petiolate, sub-petiolate or without stalked base; nodus almost always before the middle of the wing; fore and hind wings essentially alike in form and venation; slender species, nearly always resting with the wings closed above the body 2 Discoidal cell of both wings divided into two parts by an oblique vein into a triangle and supra triangle; wings never petiolate, nor with a distinctly narrowed stalklike portion at the base; hind 64 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology wings noticeably different from the fore wings in shape and venation; nodus at or beyond the middle of the wings, at least in the fore pair; stouter-bodied forms that rest with the wings held extended horizontally from the sides of the body. (Suborder ANIS6PTERA) 18 .- A .** cu. 41-44. Odonata 41. Libellula, fore wing (Borror) Libellulidae. 42. Libellula, hind wing (Borror) Libellulidae. 43. Cordulegaster, tip of abdomen of female (Tillyard) Cordulegastridae. 44. Libellula, head; ant., antenna (Hyatt and Arms) Libellulidae. Discoidal cell of similar form in both fore and hind wings; eyes strongly projecting from the sides of the head, often almost stalked and always separated by more than their width in dorsal view; mesothorax longer than wide; abdomen long and slender, cylin- drical. (Fig. 35.) (Suborder ZYGOPTERA) 3 Discoidal cell differing in form in the fore and hind wing; eyes less noticeably projecting laterally, separated by less than their width (female), or almost contiguous above (male); mesothorax wider than long; abdomen distinctly swollen apically. (Epiophlebia, Ind., Japan.) (Suborder ANISOZYGOPTERA). EPIOPHLEBIID^ Only two, rarely three, complete antenodal crossveins (Fig. 38); arculus at least as near to the nodus as to the base of the wing; wings strongly petiolate; mesopleura not divided by an oblique suture 4 CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 65 Five or more antenodal cross veins; arculus farther from the nodus than from the base of the wing, equidistant in some Chlorocyphi- dze); wings less strongly petiolate; frequently with metallic colora- tion; mesopleura with a distinct oblique suture extending from the root of the wing toward the middle coxa. (Superfamily AGRIONOIDEA (AGRIdlDEA) ) 13 4. Postnodal crossveins not at all in line with the crossveins beneath them; discoidal cell open basally; small, slender, metallic green species, with short wings. (Fig. 37.) (Hemiphlebia, Austr.). (Superfamily HEMIPHLEBIdlDEA) . . HEMIPHLEBIID^E Postnodal crossveins more or less completely in line with the cross- veins below them (i.e., extending as straight lines from the costa to the first branch of the radius. (Superfamily COENAGRI- ONOIDEA {COEN AGRIdlDEA)) 5 5. CuP arching strongly upwards on leaving the discoidal cell. (Syn- lestes, Chorismagrion, Austr.; Chlorolestes, Ethiop.; Perilestes, Neotrop.) SYNLfiSTID^ CuP not arched strongly at this point 6 6. R4-f-5 and IR3 (intercalary) both arising far proximal to the level of subnodus, IR3 usually at least half-way between arculus and subnodus and usually nearer the arculus 7 R4 + 5 and IR3 arising nearer the subnodus than arculus; at the most R4-J-5 arising half-way between arculus and subnodus . .8 7. Veins CuP and 1A complete; supplementary sectors present between IR3, R4-f-5 and MA. (Lestes, cosmop.; Cryptolestes, Am.; Sym- pycna, Holarc; Australestes, Austr.) LfiSTID^E Vein CuP greatly reduced, vein 1A entirely absent; two straight supplementary sectors present, one between R2 and IR2 and an- other between IR2 and R3. (Lestoidea, Austr.). lestoideim; 8. Nodus situated very close to base of wing, at from one-sixth to one-fourth the wing-length; pterostigma absent, or if present, abnormal, not fully chitinized, or made up of several cells, never braced. (Pseudostigma, Mecistogaster, Megaloprepus, Microstig- ma, Anomisma, Neotrop.) PSEUDOSTIGMATID^ Nodus lying more distal, usually more than one-fourth the wing- length from base (if nearer, then the pterostigma normal); ptero- stigma present, strongly chitinized (rarely hypertrophied), braced or unbraced , 9 9. Supplementary sectors present distally and extending proximal as far as the level of pterostigma or further. (Megapodagrion, Neo- trop.; Argiolestes, Podolestes, Austromal.). (MEG APOD AGRlI- DM) MEGAPODAGRl6NID^ Supplementary sectors absent or at most a few distal cellules aligned and not extending proximal as far as pterostigma 10 66 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology 10. Vein 1A absent or greatly reduced; vein CuP normal or reduced. . 11 Veins CuP and 1 A normal 12 11. An extra cross vein present in the postcostal space, very close to base of wing and in addition to that of the anal-crossing (Ac); number of postnodals comparatively large. (Platysticta, Protosticta, Orien- tal; Palaemnema, Neotrop.) PLATYSTfCTID^E No additional crossvein in the postcostal space; number of post- nodals comparatively small. (Protoneura, Neoneura, Neotrop.; Nososticta, Neosticta, Austr.; Caconeura, Ind.). PROTONEtJRID,E 12. Discoidal cell subrectangular; no marked zigzagging of any of the main veins (only distal portion of MA slightly zig-zagged). (Platycnemis, Indocnemis, Calicnemia, Metacnemis, Old World). PLATYCNEMfDID^E Discoidal cell with distal angle markedly acute; veins IR3; MA and 1 A strongly zig-zagged distally. (Ccenagrion (Agrion, auctt.), Ischnura, Enallagma, widespr.; Pseudagrion, Indoaustr.; Argia, Am.; Nehallenia, Holarc, Neotrop.). (CCENAGRllD/E). CCENAGRIONID^: 13. Arculus present 14 Arculus absent, usually only the distal primary antenodal vein present. (Polythore, Euthore, Cora, Chalcopteryx, Neotrop.). POLYTHORIDiE 14. Both primary antenodal veins present; discoidal cell well separated from Rl 15 Both primary antenodal veins absent 17 15. R2-f-3 more or less arched towards Rl, shortly after its origin; secondary antenodals numerous 16 R2+3 not arched towards Rl; secondary antenodals few in number. (Amphipteryx, Neotrop.; Diphlebia, Austr.; Devadatta, Indomal.; Pentaphlebia, Ethiop.) AMPHIPTERYGID^ 16. Clypeus produced in the form of a prominent snout; no basal antenodals ever present. (Chlorocypha, Ethiop.; Neocypha, Libel- lago, Indocypha, Indomal.) {LlBELLAGlNlD/E). CHLOROCYPHIDiE Clypeus not produced; nearly always basal; antenodals present. (Heliocharis, Dicterias, Cyanocharis, Neotrop.). HELIOCHARfTIDiE 17. R2+3 not usually fused with Rl, shortly after its origin; anal vein without a recurrent branch; discoidal cell short, usually shorter than basal space and either untraversed or traversed by very few crossveins. (Anisopleura, Indophaea, Ind.; Epallaga). EPALLAGIDjE R2+3 nearly always fused with Rl for a short distance after its origin; anal vein with a recurrent branch or itself recurrent; CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 67 discoidal cell elongate, usually as long as basal space and traversed by numerous crossveins. (Agrion {Calopteryx), Holarc; Sapho, Ethiop.; Vestalis, Indomal.; Neurobasis, Indoaustr.). (CALOP- TERfGIDAE, AGRllD/E) AGRI6NIM; 1 18. Antenodal crossveins of the first and second series (i.e. above and below the subcostal vein) not corresponding or continuous, except for two greatly thickened ones that extend straight across from the costa to the radius; triangles in fore and hind wings alike or closely similar in shape and occupying the same position with reference to the arculus in both wings; labial palpi two-jointed. (Superfamily .ESHNOIDEA) .19 Antenodal crossveins of the first and second series corresponding, extending as straight continuous veins from the costa to the radius, except sometimes the last one or two; none of these crossveins greatly thickened; triangles of fore and hind wings markedly different in form and position, placed much nearer to the arculus in the hind wing than in the fore wing. (Superfamily LIBEL- LULOIDEA) 22 19. Eyes broadly contiguous above; anal loop in hind wing clearly formed. (/Eshna (/Eschna), widespr.; Anax, cosmop.; Austro- phlebia, Austr.). (&SCHNIDA1) iESHNID^E Eyes more or less separated above 20 20. Middle lobe of labium with a deep median fissure; eyes only moder- ately separated above 21 Middle lobe of labium entire, not divided by a median fissure; eyes widely separated above; ovipositor reduced to a pair of valves attached to the eighth segment. (Gomphus, Ophiogomphus, Holarc; Lindenia, Palawan:.; Erpetogomphus, Am.; Ictinus, Indo- austr.) GOMPHIDjE 21. Pterostigma moderately long, emitting four or five crossveins from its lower edge; superior anal appendages of male narrow and acute at apex. (Cordulegaster, widespr.; Anotogaster, Holarc; Chlorogomphus, Indomal.) CORDULEG ASTRIDE Pterostigma very long and slender, emitting six or seven crossveins; superior anal appendages of male broadly triangular, obtuse at apex. (Petalura, Uropetala, Austr.; Phenes, Neotrop.; Tachopteryx, Nearc) PETALURID^ 22. Tibiae of males with a long laminate keel on the flexor surface; base of hind wing of male usually strongly angulate; second abdomi- nal segment with a flattened tuGercle (auricle) at each side; body almost always metallic in color. (Cordulia, Somatochlora, Holarc; Macromia, widespr.; Tetragoneuria, Nearc; Phyllomacromia, Ethiop.) corduliim; 1 The name Agrionidae is used instead of Agriidae on the basis of evidence sub- mitted by Professor B. Elwood Montgomery. 68 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Tibiae of males not keeled; base of hind wing rounded in both sexes; second abdominal segment without tubercles; body rarely of metallic color. (Fig. 42). (Libellula, Leucorrhinia, Holarc; Sympetrum, Pantala, Orthetrum, cosmop.; Erythrodiplax, Neo- trop.; Trapezostigma (Tramea), Celithemis, Nearc). LIBELLtJLIDiE Nymphs * 1. Body slender, bearing three long tracheal gills attached to the tip of the abdomen; these are usually leaf-like in shape and traversed by conspicuous tracheal tubes (rarely much reduced in some Ccenagrionidae); lateral abdominal gills usually absent. (Suborder ZYG6PTERA) 3 Body stout, the abdomen not narrow; without tracheal gills attached to the tip of the abdomen; the caudal gills concealed in an enlarge- ment of the rectum; tip of abdomen bearing three spine-like or triangular processes 2 2. Gizzard with four to eight dental folds. (Suborder ANISOP- TERA) 12 Gizzard with sixteen dental folds; very rare Indian and Japanese species. (Suborder ANISOZYGOPTERA) EPIOPHLEBIIDAE 3. Mask bearing at least two pairs, and usually with numerous stiff bristles or setae 4 Mask destitute of setae both on the mentum and the lateral lobes 6 4. Median lobe of mask incised; lateral lobes deeply cleft; caudal gills with the secondary tracheae lying at right angles to the gill axis; legs long LESTID^E Median lobe of mask projecting, not incised; legs short or moderate in length 5 5. Caudal gills stalked, with pointed, leaf-like apical portion. PSEUDOSTIGMATID^E Caudal gills usually slender, lamellate, held in a vertical plane, not clearly stalked, often distinctly constricted CCENAGRIONIDAE 6. Second joint of antennae greatly lengthened, as long as or longer than the following together. (Fig. 45) 7 Second joint of antennae not noticeably lengthened 8 7. Median caudal gill flat, much shorter than the lateral ones which are triangular in section AGRl6NIDiE All three caudal gills of approximately the same size and shape. SYNLESTIDyE 8. Caudal gills strongly constricted at the middle. (Fig. 46). PROTONEURIDyE Caudal gills not constricted at the middle 9 1 The following key will serve as an aid in determining the families, but must not be relied on as infallible. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 69 10. 11. Abdomen with six or seven pairs of lateral gills; caudal gills swollen, sac-like 10 Abdomen without lateral gills 11 Caudal gills swollen, oblong, with sharply pointed tips. EPALLAGID^ Caudal gills with the apex broad, not pointed POLYTHORID./E Caudal gills broad and flat, leaf-like. . . MEGAPODAGRI6NID.E Caudal gills not flat; rounded in cross-section and tapering to a point amphipterygim; Figs. 45-54. Odonata, Nymphs 45. Synlestes, antenna of nymph (Tillyard) Synlestidae. 46. Isosticta, caudal gill of nymph (Tillyard) Protoneuridae. 47. /Eshnid, antenna of nymph (Howe) /Eshnidae. 48. ^Eshnid, lateral view of head, with labium closed (Howe) ^shnidae. 49. Tachopteryx, lateral lobe of labium (Howe) Petaluridae. 50. Gomphid, antenna (Howe) Gomphidac. 51. iEshna, lateral lobe of labium (Tillyard) ^shnidse. 52. Plathemis, labium, open (Garman) Libellulidae. 53. Libellulid, lateral view of head, with labium closed (Howe) Libellulidse. 54. Cordulegaster, labium, open (Garman) -.Cordulegastridz. 12. Antennae seven-jointed; tarsi of all legs three-jointed .13 Antennae four-jointed (Fig. 50); tarsi of front and middle legs two-jointed; mask with flat median lobe; distal margin of mentum not cleft G6MPHID^E 13. Labium forming a more or less spoon-shaped mask which covers 70 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology the ventral and sometimes also the front surface of the head as far as the antenna (Fig. 53); seta? usually numerous 14 Labium flat, not forming a spoon-shaped mask for the lower surface of the head (Fig. 48), almost always without setae 16 14. Lateral lobes of labium provided with a few large and irregular teeth on the inner margin that interlock from the two sides when closed; the median lobe divided at the tip by a median emargina- tion (Fig. 54); mask extending to the base of the antennae. cordulegastrim: Lateral lobes of labium variable in form, smooth, serrate, regularly dentate or sometimes with a few long teeth, but in the last case these do not interlock with those of the other side; median lobe triangular, projecting, not bifid or emarginate. (Fig. 52) 15 15. Teeth along inner margin of lateral lobes of labium deep or mod- erate, the dentition always clearly marked; legs usually long, with the hind femora longer than the width of the head; generally large species CORDULIID/E Teeth on inner margin of lateral lobes of labium usually reduced to crenulations or obsolete (in a few forms with long teeth the mask is either greatly enlarged (Pantala) or the species are very small (Tetratheminae)) LIBELLULIDAE 16. Antennae long and slender, the segments longer than wide (Fig. 47); lateral lobes of labium with a long movable hook (Fig. 51). JESUNIDJE Antennae short and stout, the segments wider than long; lateral lobes of labium with a short movable hook (Fig. 49). PETALURID.E LITERATURE ON ODONATA Andres, A. The Dragonflies of Egypt. Mem. Soc. Ent. Egypte, 3, pp. 1-43 (1928). Bartenev, A. N. Libellulidae II. Faune Russ. Pseudoneuroptera, 1, pp. 353- 576 (1919). Bestimmungstabelle der Gattungen der Libellulinae. Zool. Jahrb., Abt. Syst., 56, pp. 357-424 (1929). Borror, D. J. Key to American Genera of Libellulidae. Ann. Ent. Soc. America, 38, pp. 168-194 (1945). Byers, C. F. Odonata of Florida. Univ. Florida Publ. Biol. Sci. Ser., 1, No. 1, 327 pp., 11 pis., 19 figs. (1930). Calvert, P. P. Odonata. In Biologia Centrali-Americana, Neuroptera, 1, pp. 17-420 (1901-08). Odonata of Cuba. Trans. American Ent. Soc., 45, pp. 335-396 (1919). Chopard, L. Atlas des libellules de France, Belgique, Suisse. Nouv. Atlas, Ent., No. 3, 137 pp., 12 pis., 47 figs. (1948). Odonapteres. In Grasse, Traite de Zoologie, 9, pp. 311-354, 30 figs. (1949). CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 71 Cqsta Lima, A. da. Odonata. In Insetos do Brasil, 1 (1938). Fraser, F. C. Indian Dragonflies. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 25-36 (numerous parts) (1918-1933). Revision of Petalidae and Petaluricbe. Mem. Indian Mus., 9, pp. 205-260, 31 figs. (1933). Fauna of British India, Odonata. xiii + 423 pp., 180 figs. (1933); xxiii + 398 pp., 4 pis., 128 figs. (1934); xi + 461 pp., 2 pis., 125 figs. (1936). Taylor and Francis, London. A Reclassification of the Order Odonata. Part III. Australian Zool., 9, pp. 359-396, 15 figs. (1940). (See Tillyard and Fraser for Parts I and II). The Odonata of the Argentine Republic. I— II. Acta zool. lilloana, 4, pp. 427-461, 16 figs.; 5, pp. 47-67 (1947-48). Garman, P. The Zygoptera of Illinois. Bull. Illinois State Lab. Nat. Hist., 12, pp. 411-587 (1917). Odonata of Connecticut. Bull. State Geol. Nat. Hist. Surv., Connecticut, No. 39, 331 pp. (1927). Howe, R. H. Manual of Odonata of New England. Mem. Thoreau Mus., Concord, Mass., 2, 7 parts, 138 pp. and supplement (1917-23). Kellicott, D. S. Odonata of Ohio. Ohio Acad. Sci., Special Paper, No. 2, 114 pp. (1899). Kennedy, C. H. Classification of Zygoptera. Ohio Journ. Sci., 21, pp. 83-88 (1920). Klots, E. B. Odonata of Porto Rico and Virgin Islands. 107 pp. (1932). Kruger, L. Einfiihrung in das Studium der Libellen. Abh. Ber. pommers. naturf. Ges., 6, pp. 53-106 (1925). Lameere, A. Odonata. In Precis de Zoologie. Rec. Inst. zool. Tor ley-Rousseau, 4, pp. 212-249 (1934). Lieftinck, M. A. Annotated List of the Odonata of Java. Treubia, 14, pp. 377-462 (1934). The Dragonflies of New Guinea and Neighboring Islands. Nova Guinea, 15, pp. 485-602, 67 figs. (1932); 17, pp. 1-67, 35 figs. (1933); 17, pp. 203-300, 50 figs. (1935); Treubia, 18, pp. 441-608, 19 pis., 2 figs. (1942). Key to Gynacantha from Celebes and the Moluccas. Treubia, 19, pp. 417-428 (1948). Longfield, C. Dragonflies of the British Isles. 220 pp., 38 pis. F. Warne & Co., New York and London (1937). The Dragonflies of Scotland. Scottish Natural., 60, pp. 65-74 (1948). Lucas, W. J. British Dragonflies. London (1900). The Aquatic (Naiad) Stage of British Dragonflies. xii + 132 pp., 35 pis., 30 figs. Ray Soc, London (1930). Martin, R. Corduliidae. Collection Zoologiques, Selys-Longchamps, fasc. 17 (1909). iEschnids. Coll. Zool. Selys-Longchamps, fasc. 18-19 (1909). iEschnidae, /Eschninse. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 115, 33 pp. (1911). Cordulidae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 155, 32 pp. (1914). May, E. Die Odonaten des arktischen Gebietes. Fauna arctica, 6, pp. 175-182 (1932). Odonata oder Wasserjungfern. Tierwelt Deutschlands, 27, pp. 1-124, 134 figs. (1933). 72 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Munz, P. A. Keys for Identification of Genera of Zygoptera. Mem. American Ent. Soc, No. 3, 78 pp. (1919). Muttkowski, R. A. Odonata of Wisconsin. Bull. Wisconsin Nat. Hist. Soc. 6, pp. 57-123 (1908). Catalogue of Odonata of North America. Bull. Pub. Mus. Milwaukee, I, Art. 1 (1910). Needham, J. G. Manual of Dragonflies of China. Zoologica Sinica, Series A, II, 344 pp. Peiping, China (1930). Key to the Dragonflies of India. Rec. Indian Mus., 34, pp. 198-228 7 figs. (1932). North American Species of the Genus Gomphus. Trans. American Ent Soc, 73, pp. 307-339, 1 pi. (1948). Needham, J. G. and D. S. Bullock. Odonata of Chile. Field Mus. Publ Zool., 24, pp. 357-373 (1943). Needham, J. G. and E. Fisher. Nymphs of North America Libellulinz. Trans American Ent. Soc, 62, pp. 107-116 (1936). Needham, J. G. and M. K. Gyger. Odonata of the Philippines. Philippine Journ. Sci., 63, pp. 21-101, 10 pis., 2 figs. (1937). Needham, J. G. and H. B. Heywood. Handbook of Dragonflies of North America. 378 pp., Springfield, Illinois (1929). Oguma, K. The Japanese /Eschnida:. Insecta Matsumurana, 1, pp. 78-100 (1926). Perrier, R. Libellules de la France. Faune de France, 3, pp. 57-71, 60 figs. (1934). * Ris, F. Odonata. Siisswasser fauna Deutschlands, Heft 9, 67 pp. (1909). Libellulids. Coll. Zool. Selys-Longchamps, fasc. 9-16 (1909-14). Neuer Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Odonatenfauna der Neu-Guinea Region. Nova Guinea, 13, pt. 2, pp. 81-131 (1913). Die Odonatenfauna von Argentina. Mem. Soc. Ent. Belgique 22 pp. 55-102 (1913). ' Odonata of South Africa. Ann. South African Mus., 18, pp. 247-452 (1921). Schmidt, E. Odonata. In Tierwelt Mitteleuropas, 4, Lief, lb, pp. IV 1-66 (1929). Bibliographia Odontologica, Lief. 1, pp. 1-116, 1 pi. Wagner, Vienna (1933). Odonata der deutschen Limnologischen Sunda-Expedition. Arch Hy- drobiol., Suppl. 13, pp. 316-397, 4 pis., 93 figs. (1934). Schouteden, H. Catalogue de la faune du Congo Beige. Odonata. Ann Mus Congo Beige, Zool. (3) Sect. II, 3, pp. 1-83, 1 pi., 83 figs. (1934). Seeman, T. M. Dragonflies, Mayflies and Stoneflies of Southern California. Pomona Journ. Ent. Zool., 19, pp. 1-69 (1927). Sjostedt, Y. Odonata der nordwestlichen Provinzen Chinas. Ark. Zool., 25A, No. 5, 22 pp., 3 pis. (1933). Tillyard, R. J. The Biology of Dragonflies. University Press, Cambridge, England (1917). Tillyard, R. J. and F. C. Fraser. Reclassification of the Odonata. Austr. Zool., 9, pp. 125-169; 195-221; 359-396, 15 figs. (1938-40). Walker, E. M. North American Species of .Eschna. Univ. Toronto Stud. Biol. Ser, No. 11, pp. 1-213 (1912). CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 73 North American Somatochlora. Univ. Toronto Stud. Biol. Ser., No. 26, 202 pp. (1925). Whitehouse, F. C. Guide to Study of Dragonflies of Jamaica. Bull. Inst. Jamaica, Sci. Ser., No. 3, 69 pp., 7 figs. (1943). Catalogue of Odonata of Canada, Newfoundland and Alaska. Trans. Roy. Canad. Inst., 27, pp. 3-56 (1948). Williamson, E. B. Dragonflies of Indiana. Rept. Dept. Geol. Ind., No. 24, pp. 229-333 (1901). North American Species of Macromia. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 37, pp. 369-398 (1909). Wright, M. and A. Peterson. Key to Genera of Anisopterous Dragonfly Nymphs of North America. Ohio Journ. Sci., 44, pp. 151-166 (1944). Zimmerman, E. C. Odonata. Insects of Hawaii, 2, pp. 321-385 (1948). ORDER PLECOPTERA (PERL ARIA) Body soft, of moderate or large size; four membranous wings, usually with many veins and numerous crossveins, rarely reduced in size; anal area of hind wing large and pleated, usually separated by a notch from the rest of the wing. Head broad and flattened; mandibles either well developed or much reduced; antennae long, thread-like; three ocelli; cerci usually long and many-jointed. Prothorax large, free; legs strong, tarsi three-jointed. Nymphs aquatic, commonly with tracheal gills; antennae long, much like those of the adults; eyes well developed; ocelli present; cerci usually long, many-jointed. Metamorphosis slight. Stone- flies, Salmon-flies. Adults 1. Hind wing with an anal lobe (Figs. 55, 58) which is separated by a notch or indentation on the outer margin just behind the cubital vein (CU2); no meshwork of delicate crossveins on anal lobe 2 Hind wing with the outer margin entire, not notched; anal lobe with meshwork of fine veins. (Fig. 59). (Stenoperla, Eusthenia, Austr., Neotrop.). Including GRIPOPTERfGIDAE, part) EUSTHENIID^: 2. Anterior coxae closely approximated; mandibles very weakly de- veloped; wings with crossveins except in the anal lobe of the hind pair, the anal area of the fore pair with two or more full rows of crossveins (Pteronarcys) PTERONARCID^E Anterior coxse widely separated 3 3. Three ocelli present, the median one sometimes reduced in size ... .4 Only two ocelli, the median one absent. (Peltoperla, Nearc). PELTOPERLIM 74 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology 4. Mandibles reduced to a weak blade; clypeus and labrum concealed under a frontal shelf; third joint of tarsi much longer than the other two together. (Figs. 55, 56, 60). (Perla, Acroneiiria, Hydroperla, Alloperla Isopteryx (= Chloropaia)). (Including CHLOROPURLID/E, ISOPtRUD/E, PERL6DID/E). Figs. 55-60. Plccoptera 55. Isopteryx Pcrliclae. 56. Perla, tarsus. Pcrlidne. 57. Perla, nymph (Pictct) Perl ids. 58. Notonemouia, wings. Nemouridar. 59. Stenoperla, wings (Tillyard) Eustheniida:. 60. Perla, wings. Perlidae. Mandibles well developed, clypeus and labrum not covered by a frontal shelf; third joint of tarsi shorter than the other two together 5 5. Fore wing with three anal veins, the first one lying very close to the second branch of the cubitus. Australian. (Tasmanoperla, Austroperla). (Including GRIPOPTERYGID&, part). AUSTROPERLIDiE CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 75 Fore wing with only two anal veins, the posterior one sometimes forked • 6 6. Both wings with the radius, media and cubitus connected near the middle of the wing by a transverse cord or continuous series of transverse veins; usually no crossveins present distal to this. (Fig. 58) _ 7 No such transverse cord near the middle of the wing; distal por- tion of wing with crossveins. Australian, Neotropical. (Lep- toperla, Dinotoperla). (Including GR1POPTERYGID/E, part). LEPTOPfiRLID^ 7. Cerci very short, sometimes reduced to a single joint, never with more than ten joints; last anal vein in fore wing forked beyond the anal cell. 8 Cerci long, many-jointed; both anal veins simple 9 8. Apical marginal space beyond tip of subcosta in front wing with an oblique crossvein present. (Nemoura, Holarc). NEMOURIDyE Apical marginal space without such a crossvein. (Leuctra, Holarc.) LEUCTRID.E 9. Second joint of tarsi about as long as the other joints. (Taeniopteryx, Brachyptera, Holarc.) TflENIOPTERYGIM Second joint of tarsi much shorter than the other joints. (Capnia, Capnella, Capnura, Allocapnia, Nearc.) CAPNIID^ Nymphs 1. Visible gills present 2 No visible gills 7 2. Gills present on the thorax 3 Gills on the abdomen, but none on the thorax. 6 3. Gills on the thorax and also on the underside of abdominal segments 1 and 2, or 1 to 3 PTERONARCID^ Gills present on thorax only 4 4. Gills on the underside of the prothorax only;" small, robust; second joint of tarsi shorter than first NEMOtJRIDiE Gills on all three thoracic segments 5 5. Three pairs of gills in the form of filamentous tufts on the pleurae; legs densely fringed with long hairs Some PERLID^ A pair of tubular gills at the base of each coxa; second joint of tarsi as long, or longer than the first T^NIOPTERYGID^ 6. Gills a series of paired latero-ventral abdominal appendages on segments 1 to 5 or 1 to 6; large species EUSTHENlID^E Gills a rosette of small filaments surrounding the anus. LEPTOPERLID.E 7. Underside of thorax covered with large overlapping shield-like plates; body resembling a cockroach in form. PELTOPERLID^E Thorax without such ventral plates; body not cockroach-like 8 76 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology 8. Palpi with the apical joints more slender than the basal ones (Fig. 57) PERLIDiE Palpi with the apical joints as stout as the basal ones 9 9. Small and robust nymphs, hairy; hind wing pads extending con- siderably outward from the body at an angle; gills present or absent in ventral cervical region NEMOtJRID^ Small and slender nymphs; hairs few, fine or lacking; hind wing pads lying about parallel to longitudinal axis of body; no branched cervical gills 10 10. Lateral margins of abdominal segments somewhat rounded, segments widest at posterior margin and narrower toward base; hind wing pads with anal lobe or area extending far beyond middle of wing pad; fore wing pads of males sometimes entirely lacking; last abdominal segment in males sometimes with a conical projection. CAPNilD^ Lateral margins of abdominal segments almost straight, abdomen appearing more cylindrical; each hind wing pad with anal lobe or area small and not extending much beyond middle of wing pad; fore wing pads of males always present; last abdominal segment in males without a conical projection. LEUCTRID-fli LITERATURE ON PLECOPTERA Banks, N. Some Characters in the Perlidae. Psyche, 54, pp. 266-291, 3 pis. (1947). Barnard, K. H. South African Perlaria. Ann. South African Mus., 30, pp. 511-548 (1934). Bengtsson, S. Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Plecopteren Schwedens. Acta Univ. Lund, 29, pp. 1-50, 33 figs. (1934). Claassen, P. W. Plecoptera Nymphs of North America. Thomas Say Foundn., 3, 199 pp., 36 pis. (1931). A Catalogue of the Plecoptera of the World. Mem. Cornell Agric. Exp. Sta., No. 232,- 235 pp. (1940). Despax, R. Plecopteres. In Grasse, Traite" de Zoologie, 9, pp. 557-586 (1949). Enderlein, G. Klassifikation der Plecopteren. Zool. Anz., 34, pp. 385-419 (1911). Frison, T. H. Fall and Winter Stoneflies or Plecoptera of Illinois. Bull. Illi- nois Nat. Hist. Surv., 18, pp. 345-409 (1929). Studies on North American Plecoptera, Particularly Illinois. Bull. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv., 22, pp. 235-355, 1 pi., 126 figs. (1942). Hanson, J. F. Records and Descriptions of North American Plecoptera. Parts I— III. American Midi. Nat., 26, pp. 174-178, 13 figs.; 28, pp. 389-407, 27 figs., 29, pp. 657-669, 26 figs. (1940-43). Hynes, H. B. N. Key to British Species of Plecoptera. S:i. Publ. Freshwater Biol. Assoc. British Empire, 2, 39 pp., 14 figs. (1940). Kimmins, D. E. Synopsis of British Nemouridae. Trans. Soc. British Ent., 7, pp. 65-83, 8 figs. (1940). CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 77 Klapalek, F. Die Plecoptera. Coll. Zool. Selys-Longchamps, fasc. 4 and 4A, 266 pp., Brussels (1912-23). Kuhtreiber, J. Die Plecopterenfauna Nordtirols. Ber. naturw.-med. Ver. Innsbruck, 43-44, pp. 1-219, 6 pis., 138 figs. (1934). Lameere, A. Plecoptera. In Precis de Zoologie. Rec. Inst. zool. Torley- Rousseau, 4, pp. 265-275 (1935). LeRoi, O. Zur Plecopteren von Rheinland-Westfalen. Ver. bot. zool. Ver. Rheinl.-Westf. 1912, pp. 25-51 (1912) (Extensive bibliography). Needham, J. G. and Broughton, E. Central American Stoneflies. Journ. New York Ent. Soc, 35, pp. 109-120 (1927). Needham, J. G. and Claassen, P. W. A Monograph of the Plecoptera or Stoneflies of America North of Mexico. 397 pp., Lafayette, Indiana (1925). Okamoto, H. Japanische Plecopteren. Trans. Sapporo Nat. Hist. Soc, 4, pp. 105-170 (1913). Ricker, W. E. Stoneflies of Southwestern British Columbia. Indiana Univ. Publ. Sci. Ser., No. 12, 145 pp., 129 figs. (1943). Schoenemund, E. Plecoptera. In Tierwelt Mitteleuropas, 4, Lief. 2, pp. V 1-18 (1928). Die Larven der deutschen Perla-Arten. Ent. Mitt., 14, pp. 113-121 (1925). Seeman, T. M. Dragonflies, Mayflies and Stoneflies of Southern California. Pomona Journ. Ent. Zool., 19, pp. 1-69 (1927). Smith, L. W. Studies in North American Plecoptera. (Pteronarcinae and Perlodini). Trans. American Ent. Soc, 43, pp. 433-489 (1917). Tillyard, R. J. A new classification of the Order Perlaria. Canadian Ent., 53, pp. 35-43 (1921). Revision of the Family Eustheniidae. Proc Linn. Soc. New South Wales, 46, pp. 221-226 (1921). The Stone-flies of New Zealand. Trans. New Zealand Inst., 54, pp. 197-217 (1923). Ulmer, G. Die Trichopteren, Ephemeropteren und Plecopteren des arktischen Gebietes. Fauna arctica, 6, pp. 223-226 (1932). Wu, C. F. The Stoneflies of China. Peking Nat. Hist. Bull., 11, pp. 49-82, 163-189, 47 figs. (1936). ORDER BLATTARIA (OOTHECARIA, CURSORIA, BLATTOlDEA) Moderate-sized or large, sometimes very large, rarely very small, broadly oval, flattened, quick-running insects. Head free but inflexed so as to be nearly or quite concealed beneath the pronotum, the mouth posterior or nearly so. Mandibles strong, toothed; maxillae well de- veloped, bilobed, with five-jointed palpi; labial palpi three-jointed; eyes usually well developed, usually two ocelli; antennae long, fila- mentous, many-jointed. Prothorax large, movable, usually transverse; meso- and metathorax subequal, not freely movable. Wings often absent or much reduced in size; when present, overlapped on the 78 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology abdomen; fore wings parchment-like, containing many veins; hind wings with a large anal lobe, clearly separated from the rest of the wing and radially folded. Legs strong, similar, coxae large; tibiae usually strongly spinose; tarsi five-jointed. Abdomen with ten tergites of nearly equal size, broadly attached at the base and not very freely movable; cerci prominent and jointed. Metamorphosis slight. Roaches. 1. Middle and hind femora, or at least the hind femora, with several evident marginal spines beneath 2 Middle and hind femora unarmed beneath, or furnished only with hairs and bristles, or with one or two apical or subapical spines . .9 2. Females with the seventh ventral segment divided posteriorly to form a valvular apparatus 3 Seventh ventral segment of female large, undivided, and rounded . . 5 Figs. 61-62. Blattaria 61. Blatella. Phyllodromiidae. 62. Periplaneta, wings. Blattidae. Apical portion of wings with at least some distinct venation, folded or crumpled in repose, never coiled into a spiral 4 Apical portion of wings entirely without venation, coiled in a spiral in repose. (Oulopteryx, Neotrop.) OULOPTERYGID^ Moderate to large, heavily pigmented species, with eyes; tenth dorsal segment of the male more or less quadrangular, often impressed, or emarginate behind. Mainly tropical. (Blatta, cosmop. (B. orientalis, Oriental cockroach); Eurycotis, Neotrop.; Polyzosteria, Austr.; Methana, Ethiop., Indoaustr.; Deropeltis, Ethiop.; Periplaneta (Fig. 62) cosmop. (P. americana, American cockroach, P. austr alasice, Australian cockroach)). {PERIPLAN- ET1N&) BLATTIDjE CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 79 Small, colorless, cave-inhabiting species, with the eyes vestigial or absent; wings reduced or absent; tenth dorsal segment of the male elongate triangular and emarginate behind. (Nocticola, Spekeoblatta, Indomal.) NOCTIC6LID^ 5. Moderate to large species, not living in ant nests; antennal joints short 6 Very small, wingless or subapterous species, 2 to 5 mm. in length, living in ant nests; entire body covered with loose hairs; legs stout, the tibiae heavily spined; antennal joints much longer than wide. Neotropical. Ant guests. (Attiphila (Figs. 68, 69)). ATTAPHfLID^ 6. Tenth dorsal segment of both sexes usually transverse and narrow; hind wings when present with an apical field; fore wings with the branches of M and Cu strongly oblique and leading toward the hind margin; hind femora usually sparsely armed with spines beneath. (Ectobia, cosmop.; Anaplecta, Pseudectobia, Neotrop., Ethiop., Indomal.; Hololampra, Holarc, Ethiop.). ECTOBIID^E Tenth dorsal segment of both sexes more or less produced, tri- angular or emarginate; hind femora usually strongly spined beneath 7 7. Tenth dorsal segment of both sexes triangular and entire, the cerci distinctly projecting 8 Tenth dorsal segment of the male more or less quadrate, with ob- tuse angles, that of the female broadly rounded or lobate, the cerci not projecting; tarsi with distinct pulvilli. (Calolampra, widespr.; Epilampra, Leurolestes, Phlebonotus, Phoraspis, Hypo- rhicnoda (Fig. 67), Neotrop.; Homalopterus, Indomal., Neotrop.; Heterolampra, Ethiop., Indoaustr.). (PHORASPl'DIDAi) EPILAMPRIDjE 8. Pronotum and fore wings smooth; hind wings with the radial vein usually emitting several parallel costal veins; pulvilli absent. (Caloblatta, Pseudomops, Neotrop.; Blatella (B. germdnica, Crotonbug) (Figs. 61, 65), Ischnoptera, Loboptera, Phyllo- dromia, Temnopteryx, cosmop.; Ellipsidion, Austr.). (PSEU- DOM6PIDA1) PHYLLODROMIIM: Pronotum and fore wings covered with a silky pile; hind wings with the radial vein emitting irregular costal veins; pulvilli present; usually large species. Neotropical. (Megaloblatta, Nyctibora, Heminyctibora) NYCTIBORIM: 9. Abdomen with the seventh segment normal, not enclosing the terminal segments, the cerci and at least the tenth dorsal seg- ment free 10 Abdomen with the seventh segment of both sexes broadly rounded, triangular and enclosing the terminal segments and also the cerci; 80 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology tibia? short and strongly bristly; wingless and greatly convex species. (Cryptoc£rcus (Fig. 64), Nearc, China) CRYPTOC£RCID,£ 10. Hind wings twice as long as the fore wings, with a transverse fold at the middle through which the veins continue to the apex, folded in repose; fore wings elytra-like, with weak venation; in- sects resembling dytiscid beetles. (Diploptera (Fig. 63) Austro- mal., Hawaii) DIPLOPTfcRTCME Figs. 63-69. Blattaria 63. Diploptera (Tillyard) Diplopteridje. 64. Cryptoceicus, dorsal outline (Hebard) Cryptocercida:. 65. Blatella, hind wing, Phyllodromiidae. 66. Cacoblatta (Sau'sure) Blaberida?. 67. Hyporhicnoda (Hebard) Epilampridae. 68. Attaphila, dorsal view (Wheeler) Attaphilidae. 69. Attaphila, ventral view (Wheeler) Attaphilidac. Hind wings without a middle transverse fold through which the veins continue to the apex, sometimes with an apical triangular field 11 11. Tenth dorsal segment semicircular, broadly produced, its hind margin more or less strongly dentate; last ventral segment of the male very small, without styles; legs robust, the front pair fos- sorial, tibia? strongly spinose, tarsi relatively short, without arolia; costal margin of the fore wings split, wings often reduced. (Panesthia, Salganea, Indoaustr.; Geoscapheus, Austr.). PANESTHIID^E Last dorsal segment without produced and dentate hind margin. 12 CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 81 12. Hind wings with an area between Cu and A capable of being folded, the anal fold large; small species 13 Hind wings without a cubital fold or at most with an indication of one, or the wings reduced 14 13. Fore wings with the branches of M and Cu directed toward the hind margin, anal area small, with few veins extending to the margin, costal area short. (Chorisoneura, Am.; Choristima, Austr.; Anaptycha, Hemipterota, Neotrop.) CHORISONEURID^ Fore wings with the branches of M and Cu directed toward the apical margin, costal area usually long and narrow. (Areolaria, Malay.; Hypnorna, Plectoptera, Neotrop.) AREOLARilD^ 14. Very small species, 5 to 7 mm. in length, living in nests of ants ... 15 Larger species, not myrmecophilous 16 15. Flattened, narrow, winged species; fore wings pubescent, with weak venation, the branches of M and Cu parallel; tibiae with long bristles; cerci long and jointed. Neotropical. (Nothoblatta). NOTHOBLATTIDjE Rather convex insects with abbreviated fore wings and no hind wings; tibial spines weak; cerci short and broad. Ant guests. Neotropical. (Atticola) ATTIC6LID,E 16. Female with the seventh ventral segment divided behind to form a pair of valves 17 Female with the seventh ventral segment not forming a pair of valves 20 17. Large species; prothorax elongate-trapezoidal, not tomentose; legs very long, the tibial bristles weak; anal areas of the hind wings of the fully winged forms large and plaited several times in. repose; fore wings with the costal cell narrow and without cross- veins, subcosta long, reaching the middle of the wings. (Archi- blatta, Catara, Malay.) ARCHIBLATTIDjE Insects not conforming to the preceding description; anal area of the fully winged forms smaller, folded only once or twice 18 18. Small species with pubescent thorax; hind wings with a pronounced thickening surrounding the ends of the shortened subcosta. Wide- spread, tropical. (Compsodes, Euthyrrhapha, Holocompsa). euthyrrhaphid^: Hind wings without nodal thickening at the end of the subcosta 19 19. Small, delicate species; tibial bristles weak; cerci long; veins simple or few-branched (Latindia, Neotrop.) LATINDlID^E Large species; tibial bristles strong; cerci short; veins many-branched. (Homoeogamia, Am.) HOMCEOGAMIIDjE 20. Tarsal claws without arolia, or with a minute arolium; tenth dorsal segment of the male abdomen more or less deeply notched 21 Tarsal claws with a distinct arolium between them 23 82 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology 21. Prothorax smooth; anal field of the hind wings of the fully winged forms large and folded fan-like, with the anal area plaited; large, robust, but not greatly convex species. (Archimandrita, Blaberus, Cacoblatta (Fig. 66), Blaptica, Neotrop.) BLABERID^ Prothorax hairy; anal field of the hind wings of the fully winged forms smaller, folded only once or twice 22 22. Tenth dorsal segment of the male abdomen transverse, often con- stricted at the middle; large, broadly convex species. (Polyphaga, Palmare, Indomal., Ethiop.) POLYPHAGIDjE Tenth dorsal segment more or less produced, its hind margin notched; broad beetle-like, showy insects. (Corydia, Indomal.). CORYDIID^ 23. Dorsal segments of the abdomen with protruding lateral angles; tenth dorsal segment quadrangular and medially notched behind. (Panchlora, Nauphoeta, Neotrop., Ethiop.; Gyna, Ethiop.; Leuco- phaea, Pucnoscellus, Ind.; Oniscosoma, Austr.) PANCHL6RID^E Abdominal segments without projecting lateral angles; tenth dorsal segment transverse, its hind margins straight or rounded 24 24. Hind wings more or less pointed or with a much produced apical field into which the cubital branches do not enter. (Oxyhaloa, Ethiop., Neotrop.) OXYHALOID^ Hind wings with rounded tip and no specialized apical field. (Elliptoblatta, Stenopilema, Ethiop.; Hormetica, Am.; Perisphae- ria, Indomal.; Parasphaeria, Neotrop.) PERISPHjERIIDjE LITERATURE ON BLATTARIA See also Orthoptera (setts, lat. p. 105) Bruijning, C. F. A. An Account of the Blattidae from Celebes, the Moluccas, and New Guinea. Zool. Meded., 27, pp. 205-252, 8 figs. (1947). Studies on Malayan Blatddae. Zool. Meded., 29, pp. 1-174, 56 figs. (1948). . Brunner, C. Nouveau Systeme des Blattaires. 426 pp. Vienna (1865). Chopard, L. Orthopteres et Dermapteres. Faune de France (1922). Blattidse de la Nouvelle-Caledonie. Nova Caledonia, Berlin, A, Zool., 3, pp. 301-336 (1924). Hanitsch, R. Malayan Blattidae. Journ. Roy. Asiatic Soc, Straits Branch, 69, pp. 17-178 (1915). Blattid Fauna of Celebes. Verh. naturf. Ges. Basel., 44, pp. 119-150, 9 figs. (1933). Hebard, M. The Blattidae of North America North of the Mexican Boundary. Mem. American Ent. Soc, 2 (1917). The Blattidae of Panama. Mem. American Ent. Soc., 4, pp. 1-148 (1919). The Blattidae of French Guiana. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 78, pp. 135-244 (1926). CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 83 Studies in Malayan Blattidae. Proc. Acad. Nat Sci., Philadelphia, 81, pp. 1-109 (1929). Australian Blattidae of the Subfamilies Chorisoneurinae and Ectobiinae. Monogr. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, No. 4, 129 pp., 14 pis. (1943). Karny, H. H. Monographic der Phyllophorinen. Treubia, 5, suppl. 142 pp. (1924). Kirby, W. F. A Synonymic Catalogue of the Orthoptera. Vol. 1, British Mus. Nat. Hist. London (1904). Morse, A. P. Manual of the Orthoptera of New England. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 35, No. 6 (1920). Ramme, W. Monographic des Blattiden-Genus Ectobius. Arch. Naturg. 89, pp. 97-145 (1923). Rehn, J. A. G. Dermaptera and Orthoptera of Chile. Trans. American Ent. Soc, 59, pp. 159-190, 1 pi. (1933). African and Malagasy Blattidae. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 84, pp. 405-511, 4 pis., 13 figs. (1933); ibid, 89, pp. 17-123, 4 pis. (1937). Rehn, f. A. G. and Hebard, M. The Orthoptera of the West Indies: Blattidae. Bull. American Mus. Nat. Hist., 54, pp. 1-320 (1927). Rehn, J. W. H. Classification of Blattaria. Mem. American Ent. Soc, 14, 134 pp., 13 pis. (1950). Saussure, H. Melanges Orthopterologiques, fasc. 2, Blattidae, 460 pp., Geneva (1865). Revision de la tribu des Heterogamiens. Rev. Suisse Zool., 1, pp. 289- 318 (1890). Revision de la tribu des Perispheriens. Rev. Suisse Zool., 3, pp. 1-59, (1895). Revision de la tribu des Panesthiens et Epilampriens. Rev. Suisse Zool., 3, pp. 299-361 (1895). Shelford, R. Studies of the Blattidae. Trans. Ent. Soc. London (1906-07) (several parts). Blattidae, Ectobiinae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 55, 15 pp. (1907). Blattidae, Phyllodrominae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 73, 29 pp. (1908). Blattidae, Nyctiborinae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 74, 5 pp. (1908). Blattidae, Epilamprinae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 101, 21 pp. (1910). Blattidae, Blattinae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 109, 27 pp. (1910). Tepper, J. G. O. The Blattariae of Australia and Polynesia. Trans. Rov. Soc. South Australia, 17, pp. 25-130; 18, pp. 169-189 (1893-94). ORDER ORTHOPTERA The Orthoptera include a great variety of insects and the suborders given in the following key are frequently given the rank of orders. Characters for each of these four groups are given on pages 84, 92, 93, and 102 respectively, and the families of each suborder are keyed sepa- rately. 1. Front legs fitted for grasping, the tibiae folding back, pincers-like on the femora; femora and tibiae usually heavily spined; prothorax much elongated and freely movable. Suborder MANTEODEA (Page 84) 84 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Front legs not fitted for grasping, rarely spinose; front coxae never conspicuously lengthened; prothorax usually short, if long not so conspicuously freely movable 2 2. Hind femora almost always much larger and thicker than the tibiae; jumping species, if not, the front or other tibiae are broadened for burrowing; species usually capable of chirping or stridulation; body more or less cylindrical with the wings held sloping against the side of the body when at rest; tergites of abdomen usually larger than the sternites Suborder SALTATORIA (Page 93) Hind femora not larger than the fore femora; mute species; all three pairs of legs fitted for walking; wings, when present, superposed at rest; tergites and sternites subequal 3 3. Cerci long, many-jointed, at least half the length of the abdomen; wingless species with the prothorax longer than the mesothorax. Suborder GRYLLOBLATTODEA (Page 92) Cerci short, unjointed; prothorax short or very short, although the body is commonly much elongated; when wings are present the front wings are usually much larger than the hind ones. Suborder PHASMATODEA (Page 102) SUBORDER MANTEODEA (MANT6IDEA, MANTdDEA) Moderate-sized or large insects of predatory habits; the front legs very long, with the femora and tibiae usually heavily spined and capa- ble of being folded closely together to grasp the prey. Body elongate, sometimes very slender and usually flattened. Head freely movable, not inserted in the prothorax; eyes prominent, usually three ocelli; mandibles strong, the mouthparts inferior, rarely turned forwards; antennae long and filamentous, many-jointed, rarely pectinate in certain males. Prothorax long or very long, freely movable, sometimes with the sides expanded; meso- and metathorax shorter, of about equal length, not freely movable. Four wings, overlapping on the abdomen, sometimes much reduced or absent, especially in the female; venation complex, fore wings usually considerably smaller than the hind pair and of stouter consistency. Tarsi almost always five-jointed, terminating in two claws; femora and tibiae sometimes with expanded margins. Abdomen elongate oval or long and cylindrical, the terminal segments not abbreviated, tenth tergite forming a supra-anal plate; cerci usually jointed, never very long. Metamorphosis incomplete; habits similar throughout development. Praying mantids, Soothsayers. A single family (MANTIDAi) MANTfelD^E * 1 The Manteidaj include an extensive series of very diverse forms and have been grouped into a large number of subfamilies by Giglio-Tos whose divisions have been CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 85 1. Front tibiae without an apical hook, with two rows of spines below; cerci very long, many-jointed; small, winged species with freely movable head and simple posterior legs. (Fig. 79). (Chaeteessa, Neotrop.) CH^ETEESSINjE Front tibiae with apical hook 2 2. Front tibiae with one or two long teeth on the dorsal side before the apical hook, otherwise with only very few spines; cerci simple; small slender species. (Fig. 75). (Bantia, Pseudomusonia (—Mhnyx), Bactromantis, Oligonyx, Neotrop.; Haania, Malay.) OLIGONYCHIN^E Front tibiae without teeth above 3 3. Front tibiae without rows of strong spines below, or with only the inner row distinctly developed 4 Front tibiae with the two rows of well developed spines below . . .5 4. Head with the mandibles directed forwards, the part behind the eyes well developed, usually long; slender, elongate species. (Fig. 77). (Compsothespis, Ethiop., Austr.; Cliomantis, Austr.) COMPSOTHESPlN^E Head of normal form, with protuberant eyes; jaws not directed forwards; stouter species with the thorax comparatively short. (Perlamantis, Palaearc; Amorphoscelis, Ethiop., As., Austr.). {AMORPHOSCELlDAi) PERLAMANTEIN^E 5. Front femora with the spines of the internal row equal or alternately long and short 6 Front femora with the spines of the internal row arranged so that the long spines are separated from one another by a series of three short ones. Usually large species, with the antenna? bipec- tinate in the male and the vertex prolonged into a more or less conical protuberance. (Fig. 76). (Empusa, Palaearc; Idolo- morpha, Ethiop.; Blepharopsis, Ethiop. As.; Blepharodes, Idolum, Ethiop.) (EMPUSID/E) EMPUSlNiE 6. Hind tibiae carinate above, or bearing several ridges 7 Hind tibiae smooth, not carinate or ridged 8 7. Hind tibiae bearing three ridges; body brilliantly metallic; front femora short and broad, with a very stout basal spine; stout species with short prothorax. (Fig. 78). (Metallyticus, Indomal.) (MET ALLY TtCIDtf) METALLYTIClNiE Hind and middle tibiae with one or two carinae above, except rarely in the male; prothorax long. (Fig. 81). (Oxyopsis, Pseudoxyops, Vates, Stagmatoptera, Neotrop.; Stenovates, Popa, Ethiop.; iEthalochroa, Ceratocrania, Indomal.) (VATID/E) . VATlNiE generally accepted. These together with several others of equal importance may be distinguished by the following key which follows the arrangement of Giglio-Tos. Several groups are regarded as of family rank by some recent workers. These changes are noted parenthetically in the key. 86 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Figs. 70-75. Orthoptera 70. Stagmomantis (Rehn and Hcbard) Manteidae. 71. Deroplatys (Westwood) Manteidae. 72. Angela (Saussure and Pictet) Manteidae. 73. Hoplocorypha (Rehn) Manteidae. 74. Toxodera. a, hind femur of same (Westwood) Manteidae. 75. Oligonyx (Saussure and Pictet) Manteidae. 8. Front femora externally with a series of five to seven spines 9 Front femora with four spines in the external row 19 9. Front femora with the first discoidal spine longer than the second; very long bodied, slender species. (Schizocephala, Indomal.; Euchomenella, Ind.; Agrionopsis, Ethiop.; Angela (Fig. 72), Neotrop.). (ANGELINA) SCHIZOCEPHALiN^ Front femora with the first discoidal spine shorter than the second 10 CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 87 10. Cerci flattened, dilated apically and more or less leaf-like; very elongate, slender species, with the front femora thin. (Fig. 74). (Toxodera, Euthyphleps, Loxomantis, Indomal.; Calamothespis, Belomantis, Ethiop.; Stenophylla, Neotrop.). (TOXODERID/E). TOXODERIN^E Cerci conical or compressed, not leaf-like 11 11. Front femora with three discoidal spines 12 Front femora with four discoidal spines 14 12. Front tibiae with more than eleven spines in the outer row; front femora with five external and three discoidal spines; small species. (Acontista, Tithrone, Astollia, Callibia, Neotrop.). ACONTISTIN^ Front tibiae with from eight to eleven spines in the outer row. .13 13. Frontal shield transverse; pronotum at least as long as the front coxae, ovally dilated or sometimes with the sides more or less parallel. (Brunneria, Macromantis, Photina, Orthoderella, Neo- trop.; Iris, widespr.) PHOTINlNiE Frontal shield subquadrate. (See couplet 23). EREMIAPHILIN^;, part 14. Supra-anal plate very long, lanceolate; hind femora and tibiae with a few small spines beneath; body slender; pronotum as long as the front coxae. (Bolivaria, Geomantis, Rivetlna (=Fischeria), Palaearc; Deiphobe, Indoaustr.; Ischnomantis, Omomantis, Ethiop.). (F1SCHERUN/E) RIVETING Supra-anal plate short 15 15. Front tibiae with six to eleven spines in the outer row 16 Front tibiae with more than eleven spines in the outer row 17 16. Front femora very broad, elliptical, with the upper margin strongly arcuate; vertex conically elevated with a tubercle on each side next to the eye; pronotum shorter than the front coxae or barely as long, with conical tubercles on the disk; small species. (Oxy- pilus, Euoxypilus, Ethiop.; Pachymantis, Ceratomantis, Pseu- doxypilus, Indomal.) OXYPILiN^E Front femora narrower, more or less triangular; pronotum with rounded lateral dilations that give it a trifoliate appearance; small species. (Dystacta, Gonypetella, Achlaena, Telomantis, Ethioo.) DYSTACTiNiE 17. Eyes acuminate, or the hind femora lobate; moderate-sized species colored like dry leaves. (M^tilia, Decimia, Acanthops, Epa- phrodita, Neotrop.; Phyllocrania, Ethiop.; Parableoharis, Mai.) EPAPHRODITiN^: Eyes rounded, or the hind femora simple 18 18. Frontal shield transverse (see couplet 1 3 ) PHOTINiN^E, part Frontal shield subquadrate (see couplet 23). EREMIAPHILiN^E, pan 88 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology 19. Front coxae with a minute apical lobe at the front margin 20 Front coxae without apical lobe 21 20. Front femora triangular, broad, not more than three times as long as wide; small species, the female often wingless. (Pseudomi- opteryx, Mantillica, Diabantia, Miobantia, Neotrop.). PSEUDOMIOPTERYGINjE Figs. 76-82. Orthoptera 76. Empusa, front leg (Westwood) Manteidae. 77. Compsothespis, front leg (Westwood) Manteidae. 78. Metallyticus, front leg (Westwood) Manteidae. 79. Chaeteessa, front leg (Westwood) Manteidae. 80. Mantoida, front leg (Westwood) Manteidae. 81. Vates, hind leg (Saussure and Pictet) Manteidae. 82. Vates, base of antenna of male (Saussure and Pictet) Manteidae. Front femora slender, more than three times as long as broad; pro- notum long and narrow, not noticeably dilated; small slender species. (Fig. 73). (Musoniella, Musonia, Diamusonia, Thespis, Neotrop.; Hoplocorypha, Ethiop.) THESPlN^ 21. Front femora with the two intermediate spines of the outer row longer than the others; pronotum longer than the front coxae; fore wings long in the male, short in the female; body usually very slender. (See couplet 9) SCHIZOCEPHALlNiE, part CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 89 Front femora with the two intermediate spines of the outer row not longer than the others 22 22. Front tibiae with four or five spines in the outer row 23 Front tibiae with more than five spines in the outer row 25 23. Front femora with the groove that receives the tibial claw remote from the base 24 Front femora with the claw groove close to the base. (Eremiaphila, Palaearc; Tarachodes, Galepsus, Tarachodula, Ethiop.; Parepis- copus, Didymocorypha, Indomal.). {ORTHODERlN/E, TARA- CHODlN/E, EREMIAPHiLIDAz) EREMIAPHILIN^ 24. Vertex not produced (see couplet 20) THESPIN^E, part Vertex produced into an elongate, triangular process. (Pyrgomantis, Ethiop.) (see couplet 23) EREMIAPHILINjE, part 25. Lateral margins of pronotum parallel or divergent in front (see couplet 23). (Humbertiella, Theopompula, Indomal.; Elaea, Theopompa, Ethiop.) EREMIAPHILIN^E, part Lateral margins of pronotum more or less convergent in front .... 26 26. Front tibiae with the spines in the outer row erect and remote from one another 27 Front tibiae with the spines in the outer row decumbent and very close together 50 27. Front femora with from one to three discoidal spines 28 Front femora with four discoidal spines 29 28. Internal apical lobes of the front coxae divergent, not dilated into a small lobe at the tip; small species. (Tarachina, Bolbula, Enicophlaebia, Ethiop.; Bolbe, Ciulfina, Austr.; Haplopeza, Iridop- teryx, Fulciniella, Eomantis, Indomal.) IRIDOPTERYGINjE Internal apical lobes of the front coxae contiguous. (See couplet 14) RIVETING, part 29. Front femora with a well marked fovea or pit between the first and second spines of the outer row 30 Front femora without such a fovea 34 30. Front femora with the discoidal spines forming a sinuous line; species of moderate size, with short, stout body, the pronotum broad and depressed. (Gonatista, Liturgusa, Neotrop.; Dactyl- opteryx, Ethiop.; Gonatisteila, Austr.) LITURGUSINjE Front femora with the discoidal spines placed in a straight line. . .31 31. Spines of outer row on front femora very long and curved 32 Spines of outer row on front femora shorter, straight; slender-bodied species, with the wings well developed in both sexes. (Arria, Malay.; Sibylla, Presibylla, Ethiop.) SIBYLLINE 32. Pronotum with two tubercles near the base of its posterior por- tion 33 Pronotum simple, without tubercles; slender or very slender species, 90 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology with well developed wings in both sexes, (Caliris, Ind.; Lepto- mantis, Malay.; Deromantis, Ethiop.) CALIRIDiN.dE 33. Hind femora with a small lobe or tooth below near tip; more or less stout and short-bodied species with strongly prominent eyes. (Majanga, Ethiop.; Majangella, Malay.) MAJANGLNdE Hind femora simple, without such projection; body slender, flat- tened, the eyes moderately prominent. (Melliera, Neotrop.; Mel- lieriella, Austr.) MELLIERlNiE 34. Vertex produced into an elongate process (see couplet 6). OXYPILlNiE, part Vertex not elongated or produced 35 35. Four posterior tibiae or their femora minutely spinulose below. . . .36 Four posterior tibia and femora with the lower edge smooth. . . .37 36. Frontal shield transverse; discoidal portion of hind wings not banded. (See couplet 14) RIVETING, part Frontal shield scarcely broader than high; discoidal portion of hind wings with black cross-bands; pronotum at least as long as the front coxae. A cosmopolitan group. (Fig. 70). (Mantis, Palaearc, Austr.; Stagmomantis, Am. (S. Carolina, Carolina mantis); Auro- mantis, Uromantis, Neotrop.; Calidomantis, Sphodromantis, Ethiop.; Tenodera (T. sinensis, Chinese mantis), Polyspolota, widespr.; Sphodropoda, Austr.). (MANTlNAE). MANTEINjE 37. Lateral margins of pronotum strongly expanded, leaf-like 38 Lateral margins of pronotum not expanded 40 38. Posterior femora simple 39 Posterior femora lobed; large, brown, leaf-like species with con- spicuous foliaceous expansions at the sides of the pronotum and at the tips of the four posterior femora. (Fig. 71). (Deroplatys, E. As.; Brancsikia, Madagascar). (DEROPLATflD/E). DEROPLATYINjE 39. Hind metatarsi simple, not carinate; large species with the pronotum bearing leaf-like expansions at the sides. (Chceradodis, Neotrop., Indomal.). (CHCERAD6D1D/E) CHCERADODiN^ Hind metatarsi carinate. (See couplet 36) MANTElN.dE, part 40. Eyes produced laterally to form a conical, spiniform process; body very slender, filiform. (Oxyothespis, Ethiop., As.; Heterochaetula, Malay.) OXYOTHESPIN^ Eyes rounded laterally 41 41. Fore wings and antennae of the male ciliate 42 Fore wings and antennae of the male not ciliate 44 42. Pronotum linear or extremely slender; small species; the female apterous. (Miopteryx, Promiopteryx, Chloromiopteryx, Neotrop.) MIOPTERYGiN^E Pronotum more or less expanded 43 CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 91 43. Pronotum almost trilobed, the angulations of the expansions some- what acuminate; fore wings of male broad (see couplet 16). DYSTACTIN^, part Pronotum more or less elliptical, the angulations of the expansions rounded; elytra narrow. (See couplet 45) . . AMELiN-flL, part 44. Pronotum shorter than the front coxae 45 Pronotum as long as or longer than the front coxae 46 45. Hind wings not colored; small species. (Ameles, Pseudoyersinia Palaearc; Yersinia, Litaneutria, Neotrop.; Amantis, Myrcinus, Gonypeta, Indomal.; Metentella, Ligaria, Ethiop.). . AMELlNiE Hind wings brightly colored, otherwise similar to the Amelinae. (Compsomantis, Opsomantis, Malay.). (COMPSOMANTlN/E). compsomantein;e 46. Front tibia with the sixth spine from the apex in the outer row longer than the fifth. (See couplet 32) . . . CALIRIDlNi-E, part Front tibia with the sixth spine not longer than the fifth 47 47. Eyes produced laterally to form a conical, spiniform process. (See couplet 40) OXYOTHESPIN^E, part Eyes not thus spined 48 48. Front femora with the first spine in the discoidal row not shorter than the second; large species of elongate form; wings large in male, short in female. (Archimantis, Rheomantis, Pseudomantis, Austr.). (ARCHIMANT1N/E) ARCHIMANTEIN^ Front femora with the first discoidal spine shorter than the second 49 49. Supra-anal plate very long, lanceolate; large species with the pro- notum much longer than the front coxae. (Solygia, Ethiop.). SOLYGIIN^ Supra-anal plate short. (See couplet 36) MANTElNiE, part 50. Pronotum slender, as long as the front coxae. 51 Pronotum more or less broadened, shorter than the front coxae; body more or less short and stout; wings well developed in both sexes. (Odontomantis, Hestiasula, Creobroter, Ind.; Otomantis, Panurgica, Harpagomantis, Ethiop.). (CREOBROTlNAi). HYMENOPODINjE 51. Margins of pronotum broadly laminate (see couplet 17). EPAPHRODITiN,E, part Margins of pronotum not broadly laminate; species of moderate size, with slender pronotum which is at least as long as the front coxae. (Anaxarcha, Acromantis-, Citharomantis, Indomal.; Theo- mantis, Sigerpes, Anasigerpes, Ethiop.). (ACROMANTlNAi). ACROMANTEIN^: 92 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology SUBORDER GRYLLOBLATT6DEA (GRYLLOBLATT6IDEA, NOTdPTERA) Elongate, more or less depressed, wingless insects, measuring about an inch in length. Head rather large, free, horizontal or slightly inclined; eyes small or absent, no ocelli; antennae long, filiform, with about 30 to 40 joints, inserted at the sides of the front of the head near the Figs. 83-86. Orthoptera 83. Galloisiana (Silvestri) Grylloblattidae. 84. Grylloblatta (Walker) Grylloblattidae. 85. Grylloblatta, tarsus of male (Walker) Grylloblattidae. 86. Galloisiana, antenna (Crampton) Grylloblattidae. mandibles; mandibles large and strong. Prothorax quadrate or some- what longer than wide, not expanded laterally; free and larger than the meso- or metathorax. Legs similar, formed for running, the coxae close together; tarsi five-jointed, with two claws, those of the adult male with a pair of membranous lobes beneath each joint. Abdomen elongated, tergites more or less equal, transverse, extending down at the sides of the abdomen; cerci long, eight- or nine-jointed; ovipositor exserted, sword-shaped, composed of six paired pieces. Metamorphosis very slight, CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 93 the nymphs very much like the adults and apparently of slow growth; terrestrial in all stages. (Figs. 83—86). A single family. (Grylloblatta, western Canada, northwestern United States; Galloisiana, Japan) GRYLLOBLATTIDjE SUBORDER SALTATORIA Small to large, nearly always jumping species, often possessing a device on the wings for making a creaking or chirping sound; hind femora almost always very much stouter basally, or longer, or both, than the middle femora; wings of adults reposing over the abdomen, the fore wings toughened, narrower and thicker than the membranous, Figs. 87-92. Orthoptera 87. Conocephalus (Blatchley) Tettigoniidae. 88. Stenopelmatus (Saussure) Stenopelmatidae. 89. Gryllacris (Karny) Gryllacridae. 90. Anabrus (Caudell) Tettigoniidae. 91. Stilpnochlora (Saussure) Tettigoniidae. 92. Ceuthophilus (Blatchley) Stenopelmatidae. plaited hind pair; sometimes the wings vestigial or completely absent; head usually vertical, sometimes conically produced forward; oviposi- tor almost always free, often long, sword- or needle-shaped; mouthparts conspicuous, mandibulate; antennae long and many-jointed or short with few joints; tarsi usually four- or three-jointed; prothorax large, free, often much enlarged; cerci short. Metamorphosis gradual, the young resem- 94 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology bling the adults, but with the small wings in a reversed postion in the last two nymphal stages, the hind wings then overlapping the fore wings. 1. Antennae usually long and many-jointed, delicately tapering and exceeding the body in length, rarely very short, with twelve seg- ments or less; auditory organs if present, near the base of the front tibia; ovipositor of female almost always long and well developed; tarsi usually four-jointed. (TETTIGONIOIDEA (=LOCUSTOIDEA)) 2 Antennae shorter, with less than 30 joints, filiform, rarely clubbed or serrate, but not delicately tapering; auditory organ if present, near the base of the abdomen; ovipositor of female never elon- gated; tarsi three-jointed, rarely with the front and middle ones two-jointed. ( ACRIDOIDEA) 14 2. Tarsi four-jointed, at least on the four posterior legs; antennae always very long and tapering; ovipositor usually long and sword- shaped 3 Tarsi with three joints or less; ovipositor when present, needle- shaped 6 3. Tarsi more or less depressed 4 Tarsi distinctly compressed; almost always apterous forms, usu- ally dull-colored STENOPELMATID^E This family comprises six subfamilies, separable as follows: a. Front tibiae with an auditory organ b Front tibiae without an auditory organ d b. Cerci very distinctly jointed apically. (Lezina, Old World). LEZININjE Cerci simple c c. Cerci short; first and second joints of tarsi indistinctly separated; wings large, with a chirping organ. (Prophalangopsis ( = Tdr- raga), Ind.). (Including ABOILlNAE, HAGLlN/E, PAMPHA- GOPSlNAZ, ISFAROPTERlNAi, GElNITZllNAl). PROPHALANGOPSINjE Cerci long; first and second tarsal joints distinctly separated; usually wingless. (Anostostoma, Ethiop., Austr.; Demacrida, Austr.; Magrettia, Ethiop., As.) ANOSTOSTOMATlN^E d. Hind femora at base more sharply produced below than above; legs rather long and slender. Cave crickets. (Ceuthophilus, Am. (Fig. 92); Dolichopoda, Palaearc; Troglonhilus, Palaearc; Rhaphi- dophora, Indoaustr.). (CEUTHOPHILlNAE). RHAPHIDOPHORiN^E Hind femora at base more sharply produced above than below; legs stouter e e. Front coxae armed in front with a tooth-like projection. (Mim- nermus, Ethiop.; Cratomelus, Neotrop.) MIMNERMlNJE CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 95 Front coxae simple, unarmed. (Fig. 88). (Stenopelmatus, Am.). STENOPELMATlNiE 4. Front tibiae without an auditory organ 5 Front tibiae with an auditory organ. Long-horned locusts, Katydids. (PHASGONURlDtf, LOCUSTIDM) TETTIGONIID^ This very extensive family includes a number of subfamilies many of which are often given family rank. They may be separated as follows: Figs. 93-104. Orthoptera 93. Gryllus, fore wing (Handlirsch) Gryllidae. 94. CEcanthus, fore wing (Handlirsch) Gryllidae. 95. 96. Superior and inferior insertion of antennae (Caudell) Tettigoniidy 97. Mecopcda, dorsal view of head and pronotum (Caudell) Tettigoniidae. 98. Tarsus with sulfate segments (Caudell) Tettigoniidae. 99. Tarsus with smooth segments (Caudell) Tettigoniidae. 100. Open auditory pit (Caudell) Tettigoniidae. 101. Linear auditory pit (Caudell) Tettigoniidae. 102. Ear-like or shell-shaped auditory pit (Caudell) Tettigoniidae. 103. Tarsus with free plantula (Caudell) Tettigoniidae. 104. Phyllophora, hooded form of pronotum (Caudell) Tettigoniidae. a. Antennae inserted between the eyes, nearer to the top of the occi- put than to the clypeal suture. (Fig. 95) b Antennae inserted below the eyes, or between their lower margins, nearer to the clypeal suture than to the top of the occiput. (Fig. 96) o b. First and second joints of tarsi longitudinally sulcate laterally. (Fig. 98) ...............c First and second tarsal joints smooth (Fig. 99); hind tibiae with an apical spine on each side above. A large cosmopolitan group, 96 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology including many leaf-like species. (Phaneroptera, widespr.; Isopsera, Ind.; Scudderia, Am.; Tylopsis, Palaearc., Ethiop.; Iso- phya, Palmare, Am.) PHANEROPTERIN^ c. Auditory pits on front tibiae open. (Fig. 100) d Auditory pits covered partly by an ear-like or shell-shaped exten- sion of the chitinous rim which partly covers them and narrows the aperture or reduces it to a linear slit. (Figs. 101, 102) g d. Posterior tibiae with an apical spine on each side above e Posterior tibiae without apical spines above; body winged, very slender with slender legs. (Zaprochilus (=Prochilus), Austr.). (PROCHlLIDAl) ZAPROCHILINjE e. Prosternum armed with a pair of spines or tubercles f Prosternum simple, unarmed. (Meconema, Cyrtaspis, Palaearc; Amytta, Anepitacta, Ethiop.; Thaumaspis, Ind.). MECONEMINjE f. Pronotum hood-like, strongly and acuminately produced behind; lateral carinae of pronotum dentate or crenulate. (Fig. 104). (Phyllophora, Indoaustr.; Hyperhomala, Austromal.). PHYLLOPHORlNiE Pronotum not hood-like, nor much produced behind. (Fig. 97). (Mecopoda, Austromal.; Acridoxena, Apteroscirtus, Ethiop.; Tabaria, Rhammatopoda, Neotrop.) MECOPODlNiE g. Front tibiae without terminal spines above h Front tibiae with a terminal spine above on the outer side (except Arytropteris) n h. Antennal scrobes (i.e. the grooves in which the antennae lie) with the margins produced. (Pseudophyllus, Palaearc, Indomal.; Cleandrus, Phyllomimus, Indomal.; Zabalius, Ethiop.). PSEUDOPHYLLIN^ Antennal scrobes with the margins hardly produced i i. Hind tibiae without apical spines above. (Saga, Palaearc, Clonia, Hemiclonia, Ethiop.; Hemisaga, Austr.) SAGlN^ Hind tibiae with an apical spine above on one or both sides j j. Hind tibiae with an apical spine only on the outer side above. (Tympanophora, Austr.; Mortoniellus, Malay.). TYMPANOPHORINjE Hind tibiae with an apical spine on both sides above, or only on the inner side k k. Front and middle tibiae armed with short or medium sized spines .1 Front tibiae, or both front and middle tibiae, armed with long spines decreasing in length apically. (Litroscelis, Phlugis, Neotrop.; Hexacentrus, Indomal.; Phisis, Ethiop., Indoaustr.). LITROSCELINjE 1. All the femora unarmed beneath, rarely the hind ones armed on the outer or on both sides; usually smaller species. (Conocephalus CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 97 ( = Xiphidion) cosmop.; Orchelimum, widespr.; Odontoxiphi- dium, Nearc). (XIPHIDIlN/E) CONOCEPHALIN^ All femora usually spined below; rarely the hind ones armed only on the outer side, in which case the fastigium of the vertex is either forked or extended considerably beyond the basal joint of the antennae; usually larger species m m. Fastigium of the vertex usually noticeably narrower than the first joint of the antennae, sometimes dorsally sulcate. (Agroecia, Neotrop., Ethiop., Austromal.; Eschatocerus, Neotrop.; Nicsara, Austr.; Salomona, Indoaustr.) AGRQLCIIN^E Fastigium of the vertex usually distinctly broader than the first joint of the antennae, never sulcate. (Neoconocephalus, Am.; Euconocephalus, Ethiop., Indoaustr.; Homorocoryphus, cosmop.; Copiphora, Neotrop.). (CONOCEPHALlNtf). COPIPHORIN^E n. First joint of hind tarsi with a free plantula beneath (Fig. 103). (Anabrus, Nearc; Metrioptera, Holarc, Ethiop.; Decticus, Palaearc., Ethiop.). (DECTIClNtf) TETTIGONIiN^E First joint of hind tarsi without a free plantula, or with a very short one. (Phasgonura (=Loaista), Palaearc; Onconotus, Palaearc). {LOCUST1N/E) PHASGONURlN,E o. Third joint of hind tarsi longer than the second; front tibiae with an apical spine on the inner side; hind tibiae without an apical spine above on the outer side p Third joint of hind tarsi shorter than the second; front and hind tibiae with an apical spine above on both sides. (Bradyporus, Palaearc; Derallimus, Callimenus, Palaearc) BRADYPORlNiE p. Antennae inserted between the lower margins of the eyes; prono- tum unarmed; both sexes winged; front tibiae with an apical spine above on the outer side; hind tibiae with four apical spurs below. (Pycnogaster, Ephippiger, Uromenus, Steropleurus, Palaearc) EPHIPPIGERlN^ Antennae inserted distinctly below the eyes; pronotum spined; female wingless; front tibiae without apical spines above; hind tibiae without apical spurs below, or with only two. (Hetrodes, Acan- thoplus, Eugaster, Anepisceptus, Ethiop.) HETRODIN^E 5. Head vertical, body stout; usually brownish in color, with or with- out wings. (Gryllacris, tropicopol. (Fig. 89); Camptonotus, Am.; Paragryllacris, Austr.; Eremus, As., Ethiop., Indoaustr.). GRYLLACRID^ Head horizontal; body long and slender, the legs all very thin and long; wingless species resembling walking sticks. (Phasmodes, Austr.) PHASMODIM; 98 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology 6. Antennae very short, with twelve joints or less, not tapering at tip. (TRIDACTYLOIDEA) 7 Antennae many jointed, long and tapering 8 7. Tarsi two-jointed; hind legs very short, body long, cylindrical; front tibiae strongly dilated and digitate; large, entirely wingless species boring in the stems of plants. (Cylindracheta, Austr., Chile) (Figs. 107, 111) CYLINDRACHfiTID^ Hind tarsi one-jointed; hind legs greatly enlarged, saltatorial; three small ocelli; small species not boring in plants. (Tridactylus, cosmop.; Rhipipteryx, Am.) TRIDACTYLID^E 106 108 Figs. 105-111. Orthoptera 105. Gryllotalpa, wings (Handlirsch) Gryllotalpids. 106. Tridactylus, wings (Handlirsch) Tridactylidae. 107. Cylindracheta (Giglio-Tos) Cylindrachctidae. 108. Tridactylus, front leg (Saussure) Tridactylidz. 109. Tridactylus, middle leg (Saussure) Tridactylids. 110. Gryllotalpa, front leg (Berlese) Gryllotalpidx. 111. Cylindracheta, antenna and palpus (Giglio-Tos) Cylindrachetidae. 8. Front tibiae strongly dilated, digitate; ovipositor short, not pro- truded; large species with very large, elongate prothorax, bur- rowing in the soil. (Gryllotalpa (Figs. 105, 119), cosmop.; Scapteriscus, Am.) GRYLLOTALPID^ Front tibiae not dilated and digitate; ovipositor projecting, usually long; antennae always with more than thirty joints 9 9. Tarsi compressed, the second joint minute, compressed .10 Tarsi with the second joint cordate, depressed 13 10. Hind tibiae greatly widened, furnished with a few strong movable spines; hind femora very broad, oval; antennae relatively blunt at tips; eyes minute; small, wingless species living in ants' nests. (Myrmecophila, widespr.) MYRMECOPHfLID^E CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 99 Hind tibiae slender or only slightly widened, serrulate, or serrulate and spinose; femora more slender; antennae finely tapered at tips; usually large, free living species 11 11. Hind tibiae spinose, but not serrulate; stout-bodied, usually dark colored species. (Fig. 93). (Grylus, Palaearc, Nemobius, cosmop.; Gryllodes, widespr.; Acheta, Nearc). (ACH£TID/E) GR^LLIDjE a. Spines of hind tibiae long, movable by an articulation at the base NEMOBIIN^E Spines of hind tibiae shorter, fixed and not movable at the base. GRYLLIN^: Hind tibiae serrulate, sometimes spinose also 12 12. Hind tibiae spinose, serrulate between the spines; body and legs slender; moderate or large species. Tree crickets. (Gicanthus, cosmop. (Fig. 94); Amphiacusta, Phalangopsis, Am.; Endacusta, Austr., Neotrop.; Phaeophyllacris, Ethiop.). (Including PHALAN- G6PSIDA1) GECANTHIDiE Hind tibiae with two rows of fine serrulations, but without spines or thorns. (Mogoplistes, Palaearc, Ethiop., Neotrop.; Ornebius, widespr.; Cycloptilum, Am.; Ectadoderus, widespr.). MOGOPLlSTIDiE 13. Hind tibiae not serrate, biseriately spinose and with five apical spurs. (Trigonidium, Palaearc, Ethiop., Indomal.; Cyrtoxiphus, widespr.; Homceoxiphus, Indomal.; Anaxiphus, Neotrop.) TRIGONIDIIDjE Hind tibiae serrate, bearing more or less numerous spines and six apical spurs. (Eneoptera, Neotrop.; Nisitra, Malay.; Cardiodacty- lus, Austromal.; Orocharis, Am.) ENEOPTERIDjE 14. Tarsal claws without a pad (arolium) between them; pronotum greatly lengthened, extending backwards to cover the entire abdomen, fore wings vestigial, consisting of small scales at the base of the usually large hind wings; antennae longer than the front femora; no tympanal organs at base of abdomen. Grouse locusts. (Tetrix (Figs. 114, 116), Paratettix, widespr.; Neotettix, Nearc; Mazarredia, Indoaustr.; Tettigidea (Fig. 118), Am.). (TETTIGID/E, ACRYDlIDAl, part) TETRfGID^ Tarsal claws almost always with an arolium between them; pro- notum small, not extending backwards over more than a small basal part of the abdomen; if"" exceptionally enlarged, the wings and antennae not as above 15 15. Body greatly lengthened and very slender, stick-like, with very long thin legs; wings absent or vestigial; head conical and greatly lengthened; prothorax tubular, not overlapping the mesonotum; antennae eight-jointed; arolia sometimes small or indistinct. (Fig. 100 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology 113). (Proscopia, Prosarthria, Apioscelis, Corynorhynchus, Astro- ma, Neotrop.) PROSCOPlIDiE Of a different conformation 16 16. Hind legs similar to the middle ones; their femora scarcely length- ened and not strongly thickened; body, especially the abdomen swollen or inflated; pronotum very large; green or brightly colored species. (Pneumora, Bulla, Cystocoelia, S. Afr.). PNEUM6RID.E Hind legs very different from the middle ones, their femora large, greatly thickened at the base and lengthened; abdomen not noticeably swollen. Grasshoppers, Locusts, Short-horned locusts. (LOCUSTID/E, ACRID1ID/E, ACRYDllD/E, part). ACRfDID^E Figs. 112-118. Orthoptera 112. Dissosteira, wings (accessory veins in part omitted) (Snodgrass) Acrididae. 113. Prosarthria (Brunner) Proscopiidae. 114. Tetrix, wings (Handlirsch) Tetrigidae. 115. Acrida, hind leg (Lugger) Acrididae. 116. Tetrix, side view of pronotum (Packard) Tetrigidae. 117. Caloptenus, side view of pronotum (Packard) Acrididae. 118. Tettigidea (Blatchley) Tetrigidae. This family includes the following subfamilies: a. Prosternum simple, flat b Prosternum with a spine, swelling, or lamellate elevation anteriorly, g b. Antennae longer than the front femora c Antennae shorter than the front femora f CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 101 c. Vertex and front forming together a rounded surface, the front vertical d Vertex and front meeting at an angle, the surfaces of the two form- ing an angle when seen in profile e d. Antennae clavate, as long as the body; apterous species. (Gom- phomastax, Palaearc., Ind.) GOMPHOMASTACiNLE Antennae not clavate, shorter; usually winged species. A large cosmopolitan group. (Gidipoda, widespr.; Arphia, Hippiscus, Am.; Locusta, Pachytylus, widespr.; Dissosteira (Fig. 112), Trimerotropis, Nearc; Acrotylus, Qidaleus, Old World). OEDIPODlNiE e. Impressions of vertex wanting; head horizontal, the front nearly horizontal; margins of antennae serrate; apterous species. (Psednura, Austr.) PSEDNURIN^ Impressions of vertex present, or if rarely wanting, the head is conical, with the front more sloping, and wings are present. (Truxalis, Am.; Stenobothrus, widespr.; Gomphocerus, palaearc, Am., Stauronotus. Palaearc, Ind.; Mecostethus, Palaearc). (TRYXALlNAz, TRUXALlNA?) ACRIDIN^E f. Pronotum greatly flattened at the sides, roof-shaped and frequently with a median ridge; posterior femora dilated and compressed. (Scirtotypus, Ethiop., Indomal.; Choroetypus, Indomal.; Brachyty- pus, Ethiop.) CHORCETYPINjE Pronotum not greatly flattened at the sides, and not ridged above; posterior femora slender. (Erianthus, Indoaustr.; Tekhophrys, Eumastax, Masyntes, Neotrop.) EUMASTACINjE g. Impressions of the vertex large and shallow, forming the anterior end of the vertex where they are separated by a very narrow groove; front very strongly oblique and forming an angle with the vertex. (Maura, Chortogonus, Ethiop.; Pyrgomorpha, widespr.; Monistria, Austr.; Desmoptera, Austromal.; Calamacris, Am.) pyrgomorphin;e Impressions of vertex not forming the anterior end of the vertex, placed above, at the sides or below, or obsolete h h. Impressions of vertex dorsal in position and open behind; pro- sternum with a swelling, but rarely with a distinct thorn or tubercle. (Pamphagus, Euryporyphes, Acinipe, Palaearc; Lamarckiana, Ethiop.) PAMPHAGlNiE Impressions of vertex lateral or inferior in position or obsolete; prosternum with a distinct sharply raised tubercle or spine. (Melanoplus, Schistocerca, Am.; Acrydium, Afr.; Indo- austr.; Podfsma, Holarc, Cyrtacanthacris). (ACRIDIlNAi. PODISMlNAE) CYRTACANTHACRIN^; 102 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology SUBORDER PHASMAT6DEA (PHASMIDA, PHASMdlDEA, PHASMdDEA, GRESSdRIA, CHELEUT6PTERA) Large or very large insects, generally with very slender body of cylin- drical, stick- or twig-like form; rarely greatly flattened and leaf-like. Head more or less freely movable, usually with long slender antennae; eyes well developed; ocelli often absent. Prothorax short or very short, even in the very elongate forms; mesothorax short or elongate; meta- thorax frequently long, very closely united with the first abdominal seg- ment (median segment), the suture between them often obscured or effaced. Abdomen usually long, cylindrical or tapering, the segments similar; cerci unjointed. Legs nearly always long or very long, similar, the tarsi five-jointed; rarely three-jointed. Wings very frequently en- tirely absent; when present the fore wings are usually very much smaller than the hind ones, of stouter consistency; hind wings when well de- veloped with a narrow, stouter anterior portion and a very large delicate anal expansion or fan. Metamorphosis very slight and gradual; terres- trial and vegetarian in all stages. Mainly tropical species. Walking sticks, Stick insects, Leaf insects. 1. Tarsi five-jointed 2 Tarsi three-jointed. (Tfmema, Am.) TLMfcMIDJE 2. Four posterior tibiae each with a triangular area on the underside at apex (Fig. 119), usually marked off by grooves, rarely ending in a spine. {AREOLAT/E). (Superfamily PHASMATOI- DEA) 3 Four posterior tibiae simple, without a triangular area below at tip (Fig. 120). {ANAREOLAT/E). (Superfamily BACTERIOI- DEA) 5 3. Median segment (first abdominal segment) as long as or longer than the metanotum; often winged, with the fore wings reduced in size 4 Median segment distinct from the metanotum, but often much shorter; always wingless; species with extremely long, slender body BACfLLID,E This family includes three groups, conveniently regarded as sub- families, separable as follows: a. Prosternum with two roughened tubercles between the front coxae; antennae often as long as or longer than the front legs, always much longer than the front femora. (Fig. 121). (6brimus, Heterocdpus, Tisamenus, Hoplocldnia, Datames, Dores, Malay.). OBRIMiN,E Prosternum without roughened tubercles (except Pseudodatames which has short antennae) b CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 103 Figs. 119-127. Orthoptera 119. Heteropteryx, tip of hind tibia (Brunner) Phasmatidx. 120. Bacteria, tip of hind tibia (Brunnei) Bactcriidx. 121. Heterocopus (Brunner) Bacillidx. 122. Phyllium (Brunner) Phyllidx. 123. Anisomorpha (Caudell) Phasmatidae. 124. Trychopeplus (Hcbard) Bacteriidar. 125. Heteropteryx (Brunner) Phasmatidae. 126. Pseudomeryle (Caudell) Phasmatidx. 127. Pomposa (Brunner) Bacteriidae. 104 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology b. Antennae much shorter than the front legs, rarely {Xylica) as long; Old World species. (Pseudodatames, Cirsia, Antongilia, Madagascar; Xylica, Ethiop.; Bacillus, Palaearc). . BACILLiN-flL Antennas as long as or longer than the front legs; mainly new world species. (Pygirhynchus, Ceroys, Acanthocolonia, Mirophasma, Canuleius, Neotrop.; Orobia, Madagascar). PYGIRHYNCHlN^ 4. Antennae long in the male, many jointed, very short in the female, with few joints; mesonotum quadrate or transverse; fore wings of female covering the greater part of the abdomen, entire sides of abdomen broadly dilated into leaf-like extensions. (Fig 122). Leaf insects. (Phyllium, Ethiop., Indomal.; Chitoniscus, Polynes.; Nanophyllium, New Guinea) PHYLLIID^E Antennae long in both sexes; mesonotum longer than wide; abdo- men simple, or at most not with the entire sides thus expanded. (Fig. 126) (PSEUDOPHASMIDtf) PHASMATID^ Four subfamilies are recognized, separable by the following key: a. Tarsal claws simple; fore wings, when present, lobate, very rarely filiform b Tarsal claws pectinate; fore wings when present filiform or stalked. (Aschiphasma ( = Ascepdsma), Dina, Malay.; Prebistus, Abrosoma, Indomal.). (ASCEPASMlNAl). ASCHIPHASMATIN^: b. Body and legs armed with numerous spines (rarely the male not spiny); femora quadrate, not compressed, above with an apical spine; apical area of tibia produced into a spine. (Fig. 119). (Anisacantha, Parectatosoma, Madagascar; Leocrates, Malay.; Heteropteryx, Indoaustr.) HETEROPTERYGlN/E Body and legs armed with sparse teeth or spines; femora above without apical spine; apical area of tibia unarmed c c. Sixth abdominal segment quadrate (male), or transverse (female), rarely elongate; legs unarmed; femora not compressed nor with leaf-like dilations; almost always wingless (Fig. 123). (Aniso- morpha, Nearc, Neotrop.; Agathomera, Autolyca, Decidia, Neo- trop.) ANISOMORPHIN^: Sixth abdominal segment more elongate, much longer than wide (male) or quadrate (female); front femora either compressed or with leaf-like dilations. (Donusa, Eucles, Stratocles, Brizoides, Phasma, Prexaspes, Prisopus, Neotrop.; Phaeophasma, Malay.; Damasippoides, Madagascar) PHASMATlN^ 5. Median segment short, transverse or but little longer than wide, much shorter than the metanotum; wingless species. BACUNCtJLID^ CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 105 This family is divisible into the following subfamilies: a. Antennae distinctly shorter than the front legs; old world species. (Clitumnus, Cuniculina, Indomal.; Pachymorpha, Indoaustr.; Gratidia, Ethiop., Ind.; Arphax) CLITUMNlN^E Antennae as long as or longer than the front legs b b. Last dorsal segment of male more or less bilobed; operculum (eight sternite of female) usually compressed, boat-shaped. (Menoxemus, Promachus, Lonchodes, Carausius, Indoaustr.; Dixippus, Indomal.; Prosomera, Malay.) LONCHODIN^ Last dorsal segment of male truncate; operculum vaulted, lanceo- late. (Bacunculus, Am.; Diapheromera, N. Am.; Libethra, Ocnophila, Dyme, Neotrop.) BACUNCULIN^ Median segment as long as or longer than the metanotum, or at least much longer than wide; body frequently winged. BACTERIIDjE This family may be divided into three subfamilies as follows: a. Antennas shorter than or about equal in length to the front legs b Antennae much longer than the front legs, very thin and indis- tinctly jointed. (Fig. 127). (Necroscia, Diardia, Pomposa, Asceles, Marmessoidea, Malay.; Aruanoidea, Indomal.; Sipy- loidea, Indoaustr.) NECROSCIIN^ b. Front femora unarmed above or similarly dentate on both sides, or not three-sided. (Fig. 124). (Bactridium, Cleonistria, Bostra, Bacteria, Neotrop.; Paldphus, Ethiop.; Dimorphodes, Malay.; Eurycantha, Austr.). (PHIBALOSOMlNtf). BACTERIlN/E Front femora three-sided, spinose-dentate on the inner side above; cerci frequently large, leaf-like. (Hermarchus, Acrophylla, Vetil- lia, Austr.; Pharnacia, Indomal.; Eurycnema, Malay., Austr.) ACROPHYLLiNLE LITERATURE ON ORTHOPTERA (sens, lot.), INCLUDING PHASMATODEA, DERMAPTERA, BLATTARIA, AND MANTEODEA Blatchley, W. S. Orthoptera of Illinois. 27th Ann. Rept. Dept. Geol. Nat. Res. Indiana, 1902, pp. 123-471 (1903). The Orthoptera of Northeastern America. Nature Pub. Co. (1920). Bruner, L. Preliminary Catalogue of the Orthopteroid Insects of the Phil- ippines. Univ. Nebraska Studies, 15, pp. 195-281 (1916). Brunner, C. v. W. Prodromus der europaischen Orthopteren. Leipzig (1882). Revision du Systeme des Orthopteres. Ann. Mus. Civ. Stor. Nat. Genova, 13, pp. 1-230 (1893). Burr, M. A Synopsis of the Orthoptera of Western Europe. London (1910). Chagnon, G. Orthopteres et Dermapteres du Quebec. Nat. Canadien, 71, pp. 15-34; 54-74; 127-148, 36 figs. (1944). 106 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Chopard, L. Orthopteres et Dermapteres. Faune de Fran-e, pt. 3, 212 pp. (1922). Orthopteroides de l'Afriquc du Nord. Faun. Afr. Nord, 450 pp., 658 figs. (1943). Atlas des Apterygotes et Orthopteroides de France. Nouv. Atlas, No. 2, 111 pp., 12 pis. (1947). Orthopteres. In Grasse, Traite - de Zoologie, 9, pp. 587-722, 135 figs. (1949). Fox, N. List of Dermaptera and Orthoptera of New Jersey. Circ. N. J. Dept. Agric, No. 138, 58 pp. (1928). Frohlich, C. Die Odonaten und Orthopteren Deutschlands. Jena (1903). Fruhstorfer, H. Die Orthopteren der Schweiz. Arch. Naturg., Jahrg., 87A, Heft 5, pp. 1-262 (1921). Hebard, M. Studies on the Dermaptera and Orthoptera of Ecuador. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 76, pp. 109-248 (1924). Studies on the Dermaptera and Orthoptera of Colombia. Trans. Ameri- can Ent. Soc, 52, pp. 275-354 (1927). The Orthoptera of Colorado. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, 81, pp. 303-425 (1929). Orthoptera of Minnesota. Tech. Bull. Minnesota Agric. Expt. Sta., No. 85, 61 pp. (1933). Orthoptera [s. lat.] of Illinois. Bull. Illinois Nat. Hist. Survey, 20, pp. 125-279, 6 pis., 167 figs. (1934). Houlbert, C. Thysanoures, Dermapteres et Orthopteres. In Encycl. Sci. (1924). Hubbell, T. H. Dermaptera and Orthoptera of Berrien Co., Michigan. Pap. Mus. Zool., Univ. Michigan, No. 116, 77 pp. (1922). Innes, W. Revision des Orthopteres de l'Egypt. Mem. Soc. Ent. Egypte, 3, pp. 5-176 (1929). Karny, H. Zur Systematik der Orthopteroiden Insekten. Treubia, 3, p. 236 (1923). Kirby, W. F. A Synonymic Catalogue of the Orthoptera. Vols. 2 and 3. British Mus. Nat. Hist., London (1907-10). Lameere, A. Orthoptera. In Precis de Zoologie. Publ. Inst. zool. Torley- Rousseau, 4, pp. 287-305; 328-352 (1935). La Rivers, I. A Synopsis of Nevada Orthoptera. American Midi. Nat., 39, pp. 652-720 (1948). Lucas, W. J. Monograph of the British Orthoptera. London, Ray Soc, 264 pp. (1920). Morales Agacino, E. Notas sobre Ortopteroides de Ifni y Sahara Espahol. Eos, 23, pp. 241-277, 4 figs. (1947). Morse, A. P. Manual of the Orthoptera of New England. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 35, no. 6 (1920). Orthoptera of Maine. Bull. Maine Agric. Sta., No. 296, 36 pp. (1921). Perrier, R. Orthopteres de la France. Faune de France, 3, pp. 81-112, 108 figs. (1934). Piers, H. The Orthoptera of Nova Scotia. Proc. Nova Scotia Inst., Halifax, 14, pp. 201-351 (1918). Ramme, W. Orthoptera, In Tierwelt Mitteleuropas, 4, Lief. 2, pp. VI, 1-22 (1928). CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 107 Saussure, H. and others. Orthoptera. In Biologia Centrali-Americana, 1, 458 pp. (1893-99). Scudder, S. H. Guide to the Genera and Classification of North American Orthoptera. Cambridge, Mass. (1897). Catalogue of Orthoptera of the United States. Proc. Davenport Acad. Nat. Sci., 8, pp. 1-101 (1900). Index to North American Orthoptera. Occas. Pap. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., No. 6, pp. 1-436 (1901). Tumpel, L. Die Geradeflugler Mitteleuropas, 2d edit. Gotha. 327 pp. (1907). Walden, B. H. Orthoptera of Connecticut. Bull. State Geol. Nat. Hist. Surv. Connecticut, No. 16, pp. 48-169 (1911). Zimmerman, E. C. Orthoptera s. lat. Insects of Hawaii, 2, pp. 73-158 (1948). SUBORDER MANTEODEA Beier, M. Die Mantodeen Chinas. Mitt. zool. Mus., Berlin, 18, pp. 332-337 (1933). Mantidse. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 196-198, 200-201, 203, 248 pp., 15 pis. (1934-37). Giglio-Tos, E. Mantidi Esotici, I-XII. Boll. Soc. Ent. Italiana (1911-17). (Various parts.) Saggio di una nuova classificazione dei Mantidi. Boll. Soc. Ent. Italiana, 49, pp. 50-87 (1919). Mantidae, Perlamantinae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 144, 13 pp. (1913). Mantidae, Eremiaphilinae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 177, 36 pp. (1921). Mantidae. Das Tierreich, Lief. 50, 707 pp. (1927). Kirby, W. F. A Synonymic Catalogue of the Orthoptera. Vol. 1. British Mus. Nat. Hist., London (1904). Morales Agacino, E. Mantidos de la fauna iberica. Bol. Pat. veg. Ent. agric, Madrid, 15, pp. 149-164, 44 figs. (1947). Rehn, J. A. G. Mantidae, Vatinae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 119, 28 pp. (1911). The Orthoptera of Costa Rica, Part I — Mantidae. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, 87, pp. 167-272, 4 pis. (1935). Saussure, H. Essai d'un Systeme des Mantides. Mitt, schweiz. Ent. Ges., 3, pp. 49-73 (1869). Tindale, N. B. Review of Australian Mantidae. Rec. South Australian Mus., 2, pp. 425-457 (1923). Tinkham, E. R. Studies in Chinese Mantoidea. Lingnan Sci. Journ., 16, pp. 481-499, 551-572, 2 pis. (1937). Travassos, Filho, L. Sobre a familia Acanthopidae (Mantodea). Arq. Zool. S. Paulo, 4, pp. 157-231, 3 pis. (1945). Westwood, J. O. Revisio Mantidarum. London (1889). SUBORDER GRYLLOBLATTODEA Caudell, A. N. Grylloblatta in California. Canadian Ent., 53, pp. 148-150 (1923). Notes on Grylloblatta. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci., 14, pp. 369-371 (1924). 108 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Caudell, A. N. and King, J. L. A New Genus of Grylloblattidae from Japan. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, 26, pp. 53-60 (1924). Gurney, A. B. Synopsis of Grylloblattidae. Pan-Pacific Ent., 13, pp. 159-170 (1937). Taxonomy and Distribution of Grylloblattidae. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washing- ton, 50, pp. 86-102, 16 figs. (1948). Silvestri, F. Grylloblattidae. Boll. Zool. Gen. Agrar. Portici, 20, pp. 107-121 (1928). Walker, E. M. A New Species of Orthoptera Forming a New Genus and Family. Canadian Ent., 46, pp. 93-97 (1914). The Male and Immature Stages of Grylloblatta. Canadian Ent., 51, pp. 131-139 (1919). SUBORDER SALTATORIA TETTIGONOIDEA Bolivar, J. Orthoptera palsearctica. Pycnogastrinae. Eos, 2, pp. 423-463 (1926). Bruner, L. Revision of Tropical American Tettigonoidea. Ann. Carnegie Mus, 9, pp. 284-404 (1912). Brunner, C. v. W. Monographic der Phaneropteriden. 399 pp., Vienna (1878). Monographic der Stenopelmatiden und Gryllacriden. Verh. zool.- bot. Ges., Wien, 38, pp. 247-394 (1888). Additamenta zur Monographic der Phaneropteriden. Verh. zool.-bot. Ges., Wien, 41, pp. 1-196 (1891). Monographic der Pseudophylliden. 282 pp., Vienna (1895). Caudell, A. N. Cyrtophili of the United States. Journ. New York Ent. Soc, 14, pp. 32-45 (1906). The Decticinae of North America. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 32, pp. 285- 410 (1907). Locustidae, Decticinae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 72, 43 pp. (1908). Locustidae, Prophalangopsinae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 120, 7 pp. (1911). Locustidae, Ephippigerinae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 140, 10 pp. (1913). Locustidae; Meconeminae, Phyllophorinae, Tympanophorinae, Phasgonu- rinae, Phasmodinse, Bradyporinae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 138, 25 pp. (1913). Locustidae, Mecopodinae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 171, 32 pp. (1916). Locustidae, Hetrodinae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 168, 13 pp. (1916). Locustidae, Saginae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 167, 8 pp. (1916). The Genera of Rhaphidophorinae of America North of Mexico. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 49, pp. 655-690 (1916). Chang, K. S. F. Index of Chinese Tettigoniidae. Notes Ent. chinoise, Mus. Heude, 2, pp. 25-77 (1935). Chopard, L. Revision of the Indian Gryllidae. Rec. Indian Mus., 30, pp. 1-36 (1928). Chopard, L. Catalogue de la faune du Congo Beige. Gryllides. Ann. Mus. Congo Beige, (3)4, pp. 1-88, 37 figs. (1934). Contribution a 1'etude des Gryllides du Congo beige. Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr., 41, pp. 109-121 (1948). Cousin, G. Systematique et methodes biometriques a propos des grillons de France. Bull. Biol. France Belg., 80, pp. 389-465, 6 figs. (1947). CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 109 De Jong, C. On Indo-Malayan Pterophyllinae. Zool. Meded., 21, 109 pp., 18 figs. (1939). Fulton, B. B. Tree Crickets of New York. Tech. Bull. No. 42, New York Agric. Exp. Sta. (1915). Giglio-Tos, F. Sulla posizione systematica del genere Cylindracheta. Ann. Mus. Civ. Genoa (3), 6, pp. 81-101 (1914). Hebard, M. Review of North American Species of Myrmecophila. Trans. American Ent. Soc, 46, pp. 91-111 (1920). Studies on the Gryllidae of Panama. Trans. American Ent. Soc, 54, pp. 233-294 (1928). Mogoplistinae [Gryllidae] of the United States. Trans. American Ent. Soc, 57, pp. 135-160 (1931). Hubbell, T. H. Revision of the Genus Ceuthophilus. Univ. Florida Sci. Sen, 2,551 pp., 39 pis., 2 figs. (1936). Karny, H. Revisio Conocephalidarum. Abh. zool.-bot. Ges., Wien, 4, Heft 3, pp. 1-114 (1907). Locustidae, Listroscelinae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 131, 20 pp. (1912). Locustidae, Conocephalinae. Gen. Insectorum. fasc. 135, 17 pp. (1913). Locustidae, Copophorinae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 139, 50 pp. (1913). Locustidae, Agroeciinae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 141, 47 pp. (1913). Fauna Buruana, Orthoptera, Fam. Gryllacridae. Treubia, 7, pp. 41-84 (1925). Revision of the South African Gryllacridae. Ann. South African Mus., 29, pp. 77-151 (1929). Gryllacridi dei Musei di Genova. Mem. Soc. Ent. Italiana, 7, pp. 5-154, 55 figs. (1929). Gryllacriden des Wiener Museums. Ann. naturh. Mus. Wien, 44, pp. 49-198, 77 figs. (1930). Gryllacridae celebicae. Treubia, 12, Suppl, pp. 141-184, 18 figs. (1931). Tettigoniidae celebicae. Treubia, 12, Suppl., pp. 4-140, 70 figs. (1931). Gryllacrididae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 206, 317 pp., 7 pis. (1938). Karsch, F. Uber die Hetrodiden. Berliner ent. Zeits., 31, pp. 43-72 (1887). Uber die Orthopterenfamilie der Prochiliden. Ent. Nachr., 17, pp. 97-107 (1891). Redtenbacher, J. Monographic der Conocephaliden. Verh. zool.-bot. Ges. Wien, 41, pp. 315-562 (1891). Rehn, J. A. G. and Hebard, M. Revision of the Orthopterous Group Insarae (Phaneropterinae). Trans. American Ent. Soc, 40, pp. 37-184 (1914). Saussure, H. Melanges Orthopterologiques. Gryllides. 2 pts., Geneva (1877-78). Revision du genre Tridactylus. Rev. Suisse Zool., 4, pp. 407-419 (1897). Saussure, H. and Zehnter L. Monographic des Gryllotalpiens. Rev. Suisse Zool., 2, pp. 403-430 (1894). Schimmer, F. Monographic der Gryllodengattung Myrmecophila. Zeits. wiss. Zool., 93, pp. 409-534 (1909). Scudder, S. H. The North American Ceuthophili. Proc American Acad. Arts Sci., 30, pp. 17-113 (1894). Stenopelmatinae of the Western United States. Canadian Ent., 31, pp. 113-121 (1899). 110 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Shiraki, T. Monographic der Grylliden von Formosa und Japan. 129 pp. (1911). Gryllotalpidae and Gryllidae of Japan. Ins. Matsumurana, 4, pp. 181-252 (1930). Tepper, J. G. O. The Phanopterinae of Australia. Trans. Roy. Soc South Australia, 15, pp. 77-113 (1892). Tindale, N. B. Australasian Mole Crickets of the Family Gryllotalpidae. Rec. South Australian Mus., 4, pp. 1-42 (1928). Tinkham, E. R. New species and records of Chinese Tettigoniidae. Notes Ent. chinoise, 10, pp. 33-66, 12 figs. (1943). Uvarov, B. P. Revision of the Old World Cyrtacanthacrini. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9), 11 and 12 (several parts) (1923). Vicnon, P. Les sauterelles-feuilles de l'Amerique tropicale. Arch. Mus. Paris, (6)5, pp. 57-214, 25 pis., 95 figs. (1930). Zeuner, F. The subfamilies of Tettigoniidae. Proc. Roy. EnL Soc. London, (B)5, pp. 103-109 (1936). ACRIDOIDEA Bolivar, J. Acrididae, Pyrgomorphinae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 90, 58 pp (1909). Acridiidae, Pamphaginae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 170, 40 pp. (1916). Bolivar y Pieltain, C. Monografia de los Eumastacidos. Trab. Mus. Nac. Madrid, Ser. Zool., 46, xxxii+380 pp., 186 figs. (1930). Bruner, L. Orthoptera, Acridiidae. Biologia Centrali-Americana, 2, 342 pp. (1900-09). Synoptic List of the Paraguayan Acrididae. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 30, pp. 613-694 (1906). South American Tetrigidae. Ann. Carnegie Mus., 7, pp. 89-143 (1910). Brunner, C. v. W. Monographic der Proscopiden. Verh. zool.-boL Ges., Wien, 40, pp. 87-124 (1890). Burr, M. Eumastacidae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 15, 23 pp. (1904). Essai sur les Eumastacides. Ann. Soc. Espaha Hist. Nat., 28, pp. 75- 112; 253-304 (1899). Monograph of the genus Acrida (= Truxalis). Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1902, pp. 149-187 (1902). Claassen, P. W. The Grasshoppers of Kansas, Pts. 1 and 2. Bull. Dept. Ent. Univ. Kansas, No. 11, 126 pp. (1917). Finot, A. Sur le genre Acridium. Ann. Soc. Ent. France, 76, pp. 247-354 (1907). Fletcher, T. B. Acrydidae. Cat. Indian Ins. Govt. India, Centr. Pub. Branch, Calcutta, pt. 1 (1921). Golding, F. D. The Acrididae of Nigeria. Trans. Roy. Ent. Soc. London, 99, pp. 517-587 (1948). Guenther, K. Acrydiinenausbeute von Formosa. Stettin, ent. Zeitg., 102, pp. 145-165, 2 pis. (1941). Hancock, J. L. The Tettigidae of North America. Chicago, 188 pp. (1902). Acridiidae, Tetriginae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 79, 4 pp. (1906). Hebard, M. Key to the North American genera of Acridinae. Trans. American Ent. Soc. 52, pp. 47-59 (1926). CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 111 Studies in the Tettigoniidae of Panama. Trans. American Ent. Soc, 53, pp. 79-156 (1927). Kevan. D. K. McE. Parasphena from East Africa. Journ. East African Nat. Hist. Soc, 19, pp. 110-130 (1946). Kirbv, W. F. Acrididae. Fauna British India (1914). Liebermann, J. Catalogo sistematico y biogeografico de Acridoideos Ar- gentines. Rev. Soc. ent. Argent., 10, pp. 125-230 (1939). Generos y especies nuevos de Acridoideos chilenos. Rev. Soc. ent. Argent., 11, pp. 400-410, 1 pi. (1943). Los Acridios de Santa Fe. Rev. Soc. ent. Argent., 14, pp. 55-114 (1948). MacNeill, J. Revision of the Truxalidae of North America. Proc. Davenport Acad. Sci., 6, pp. 179-274 (1897). Mello-Leitao, C. de. Estudio monografico de los Proscopidos. Rev. Mus. La Plata, (N.S.), 1, pp. 279-448, 13 pis., 100 figs. (1939). Ramme, W. Die Acrididen-Fauna des indomalayischen und benachbarter Gebiete. Mitt. zool. Mus., Berlin, 25, 243 pp., 21 pis., 55 figs. (1941). Rehn, J. A. G. North American GEdipodinae. Trans. American Ent. Soc, 45, pp. 229-255 (1919). On New and Previously-known Soecies of Pneumoridae. Trans. American Ent. Soc, 67, pp. 137-159, 9 figs. (1941). Review of Old World Euthyminae (Cvrtacanthacridinae). Proc Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 96, pp. 1-135 (1944). Revision of the Group Hvalopteryges (Acridina:). Trans. American Ent. Soc, 70, pp. 181-234 (1944). The Acridoid Family Eumastacidae. Proc Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila- delphia, 100, pp. 77-139 (1948). Rehn, J. A. G. and J. W. H. Review of New World Eumastacinae. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 91, pp. 165-206, 3 pis., 6 figs. (1939); 94, pp. 1-88, 2 pis., 60 figs. (1942). A Contribution to our Knowledge of the Eumnstacidae of Africa and Madagascar. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 97, pp. 197-248, 5 pis. (1945). Rehn, J. A. G. and Hebard, M. Studv of North American Eumastacinae. Trans. American Ent. Soc, 44, pp. 203-250 (1918). Saussure. H. Prodrome des CEdipodiens. Mem. Soc. Phys. Hist. Nat., Geneva, 28, No. 9, 254 pp. (1884). Scuddf.r, S. H. Revision of the Melanopli. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.. 20. pp. 1- 421 (1897) and Proc. Davenport Acad. Sci., 7, pp. 155-205 (1899). Shiraki, T. Acrididen Japans. Tokio, 90 pp. (1910). Sjoestedt, Y. Revision der Australischen Acridiodeen. K. Svenska Vetensk. Akad. Handl., (3)15, 191 pp., 2 pis. (1935). Somes, M. P. The Arridida? of Minnesota. Bull. Minnesota Agric Expt. Sta., No. 141, pp. 1-100 (1914). Thomas, C. Synopsis of the Acrididae of North America. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., Washington Govt. Printing Office, 262 pp. (1873). Tinkham, E. R. Taxonomic Studies on the Cyrtaranthinae of South China. Lingnan Sci. Journ., 19, pp. 269-382. 7 pis. (1940). Trinchieri, G. Secondo contributo alia bibliografia delle cavalette [Acrididae]. Minist. Colon., Rome. 86 pp. (1933). 112 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Uvarov, B. P. Revision of the Genus Locusta ( = Pachytylus). Bull. Ent. Res., 12, pp. 135-163 (1921). The Tribe Thrinchini of the Subfamily Pamphiginae, and the Inter- relations of the Acridid Subfamilies. Trans. Roy. Ent. Soc. London, 93, pp. 1-72, 73 figs. (1943). Willemse, C. Revision of Acrididae of Sumatra. Tijdschr. v. Ent., 73, pp. 1-206 (1930). Acrididae celebicae. Treubia, 12, Suppl., pp. 189-270, 24 figs. (1931). SUBORDER PHASMATODEA Brunner, C. v. W. and Redtenbacher, J. Die Insekten-familie der Phas- miden. Parts I— III., 589 pp. Leipzig. (1906-08). Caudell, A. N. The Phasmidae or Walking Sticks of the United States. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 26, pp. 863-885 (1903). Gunther, K. Die Phasmoiden Neuguineas. Mitt. zool. Mus. Berlin, 14, pp. 599-746 (1928). Phasmoiden und Acrydiinen von Hollandisch Neu Guinea. Nova Guinea, 17, Zool., pp. 323-344, 17 figs. (1935). Phasmoiden aus Centralborneo. Ark. Zool., 28A, 29 pp., 9 figs. (1935). Celebische Phasmoiden. Mitt. zool. Mus. Berlin, 21, 29 pp., 2 pis. (1936). Gurney, A. B. Australian Walking Sticks of the Genus Extatosoma. Ann. Ent. Soc. America, 40, pp. 373-396 (1947). Kirby, W. F. A Synonymic Catalogue of the Orthoptera, Vol. 1. British Mus., Nat. Hist., London (1904). Rehn, J. A. G. and J. W. H. Species of Phyllium. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 85, pp. 411-427, 2 pis. (1933). Orthoptera of the Philippines, Pt. 1. Phasmatidae; Obriminae. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 90, pp. 389-487, 7 pis. (1939). Shelford, R. Phasmidae, in Biologia Centrali-Americana, 2, pp. 343-376 (1909). Shiraki, T. Orthoptera of the Japanese Empire (Part IV). Phasmidae. Mem. Fac. Sci. Agric. Taihoku, 14, pp. 23-88, 7 pis., 9 figs. (1935). Westwood, J. O. Catalogue of the Insects in the British Museum. Phasmidae. London, British Mus., 195 pp., 48 pis. (1859). ORDER DERMAPTERA Moderate -sized or small, more or less depressed insects, of elongate form, with the abdomen terminating in a pair of strong, movable for- ceps. Head free; antennae filiform, with from 10 to 30, rarely more, joints; mandibles large, always (except Arixenia) fitted for biting. Prothorax free, more or less quadrate. Meso- and metathorax clearly separated; fore wings (elytra) short, leaving the abdomen exposed, heavily chitinized; hind wings, when present (Fig. 142), large, orbicular or broadly oval, at base with two or three cells surrounded by heavy veins; anal fan very large, with a number of radiating veins; radially CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 113 folded from near the center, and when at rest almost entirely covered by the elytra; sometimes one or both sexes apterous. Abdomen long, very flexible, with from eight to ten exposed segments; cerci nearly always forming an anal forceps, one-jointed, except in the nymphs of a few genera, where they are multiarticulate. Legs rather short; tarsi three- jointed, with claws. Metamorphosis slight and gradual; terrestrial in all stages. Earwigs. 1. Cerci weakly sclerotized and not opposable; eyes much reduced or wanting; apterous species; ectoparasites of mammals 2 Cerci heavily sclerotized and opposable like the blades of a pair of forceps; eyes well developed; usually winged when adult; body shining, rarely pubescent; mandibles usually fitted for chewing; not ectoparasitic. (Suborder FORFICULlNA) 3 2. Antennae as long as the body; mandibles not fitted for chewing, toothed at tips and fringed with bristles along the margin; body strongly pubescent; eyes present, but much reduced in size; living as ectoparasites on bats. (Suborder ARIXENlNA). (Arixenia, Malay.) ARIXENlID^E Antennae shorter, the basal joint greatly elongated; mandibles strong, dentate; eyes entirely wanting; ectoparasites of rodents. (Suborder DIPLOGLOSSATA (DERMODERMAPTERA)). (Hemimerus, S. Afr.) HEMIMfiRID^ 3. Metapygidium and telson present as two small plates behind the pygidium, or else all three are fused together with the tenth tergite to form a large horizontal plate (squamopygidium); pygidium simple, never with complex processes; aedeagus of male double . .4 Metapygidium and telson not developed or vestigial; pygidium well developed, often with complex processes: aedeagus of male a single median piece. (EUDERMAPTERA) 17 4. Squamopygidium absent, the pygidium, metapygidium and telson all present as separate plates; body not strongly flattened (except Platylabiidae). 5 Squamopygidium developed; hind wing with an oblique branch in the large basal cell; body very strongly flattened; a large scutel- lum visible between the elytra at base. (If elytra and scutellum are absent, see Gonolabis, couplet 14). (Apachyus (Figs. 131, 137) Indomal., Austr.; Dendroiketes, Ind.). (Superfamily APACHY- OIDEA) (PARADERMAPTERA) APACHYID^E 5. Metapygidium and telson not reduced, nearly as large as the rel- atively small pygidium; head depressed, truncate or concave and not emarginate behind; femora compressed and generally keeled. (PROTODERMAPTERA) (Superfamily PYGIDICRANOI- DEA) (PYG1DICRANALES) 6 Metapygidium and telson much reduced in size, greatly smaller than the pygidium which is relatively very large; femora not com- 114 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology 132 139 Figs. 128-142. Dermaptera 128. 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. Burriola (Burr) Cheliduridae. Timomenus (Burr) Opisthocosmiidae. Esphalmenus (Burr) Esphalmenida;. Apachyus (Burr) Apachyidae. Labidura (Burr) Labiduridae. Doru (Burr) Forfkulidae. 134. Propyragra (Burr) Pyragridac. 135. Allostethus, underside of head and thorax (Burr) Allostcthidae. Anataelia, antenna (Burr) Anataeliidae. Apachyus, wing (Tillyard) Apachyidae. Esphalmenus, underside of thorax (Burr) Esphalmcnidx. Ancistrogaster, base of antenna (Burr) Ancistrogastridae. Mesasiobia, tarsus (Burr) Anechuridac. Karschiella, antenna (Burr) Karschiellida:. Forficula, wing, Forficulidae. 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 115 pressed or keeled. (Superfamily LABIDUROIDEA) (LAB- IDURALES) 11 6. Femora keeled 7 Femora not keeled 10 7. Antennae with from 15 to 25 joints, the fifth and sixth joints elon- gate (Fig. 136) 8 Antennae with 25 to 35 joints, the fifth and sixth short, transverse or quadrate (Fig. 141) 9 8. Both elytra and hind wings absent; metasternum truncate behind; nymphs with forceps-like cerci. (Anataelia (Fig. 136), Canary Id.; Challia, North China) ANAT^LIID^ Elytra always, and hind wings usually perfect; metasternum sinuate or excavated behind; nymphs with long, many-jointed cerci, not forceps-like. (Diplatys, tropicopol.) DIPLATYlDyE 9. Antennae unusually thick; fourth to sixth joints transverse (Fig. 141); nymphs with jointed cerci. (Karschiella, Bormansia, Ethiop.) karschiellim; Antennae not very thick; fourth to sixth segments short, but not transverse; cerci of nymphs forceps-like, not jointed. (Pygidi- crana, Neotrop.; Kalocrania, Malay.; Dicrana, Ethiop., Indoaustr.; Cranopygia, Ind.) PYGIDICRANID^ 10. Prosternum convex, more or less acute anteriorly; New World species, the body pubescent. (Fig. 134). (Pyragra, Pyragropsis, Echinopsalis, Propyragra, Neotrop.) PYRAGRID^E Prosternum not acute anteriorly; Old World species, the body clothed with short, stiff bristles. (Echinosoma, Ethiop., In- doaustr.) ECHINOSOMATIIXE 11. Body not very strongly flattened; forceps (cerci) not flattened nor sickle-shaped 12 Body very strongly flattened; forceps strongly flattened and sickle- shaped; elytra perfectly developed, the hind wings short; antennae 19-20 jointed. (Platylabia, Indomal.). (PALlCID/E) PLATYLABIIDiE 12. Mesosternum strongly narrowed behind (Fig. 135); stout species, sometimes without elytra and wings. (Allostethus, Gonolabidura, Allostethella, Malay.) ALLOSTETHID^ Mesosternum not strongly narrowed behind 13 13. Prosternum not narrowed behind 14 Prosternum narrowed behind (Fig. 138); without wings or elytra; abdomen of male much widened apically (Fig. 130). (Esphal- menus, Neotrop., Ethiop.; Gonolabina, Neotrop.) ESPHALMENIIXE 14. Mesosternum rounded behind; rather stout species, winged or apterous. (Anisolabis, cosmop.; Psalis, Gonolabis, Euborellia, 116 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Neotrop., Ethiop., Ind.). (PSAL1D&, ANISOLABIDtf) PSALfDID^; Mesosternum truncate behind 15 15. Antennae with more than twenty-five joints; elytra always and wings usually present. (Fig. 132). (Labidura, cosmop.; Nala, Old World; Forcipula, widespr.; Tomopygia, Indomal.). LABIDURID^ Antennae with ten to fifteen joints; without elytra or wings 16 16. Last dorsal segment truncate. (Idolopsalis, Neotrop.; Pseudisolabis, Indoaustr.; Parisolabis, Austr.) PARISOLABIDiE Last dorsal segment bifid; slender species with long legs. (Cten- isolabis, Brachylabis, Antisolabis, Ethiop., Austr.; Nannisolabis, Ind.; Metisolabis, Ethiop., Ind.; Leptisolabis, widespr.) BRACHYLABID^ 17. Second joint of tarsi simple, not lobed nor dilated. (Superfamily LABIOIDEA) (LABIALES) 18 Second joint of tarsi lobed or dilated. (Superfamily FORFICU- LOIDEA) (FORFICULALES) 24 18. Elytra with a sharp keel or a row of minute tubercles near the lateral margin 19 Elytra not thus keeled 22 19. Tarsi long and very slender; elytra granulose, the keel formed by a row of minute tubercles. (Pericomus, Neotrop.). PERIC6MID^ Tarsi short and relatively thick; elytra smooth, with a sharp keel 20 20. Antennae with the joints cylindrical 21 Antennae with the joints enlarged apically or clavate. (Nesogaster, Malay., Austr.) NESOGASTRID^ 21. Abdomen of male with the sides parallel; elytra entire, not ab- breviated; antennae 16- to 20-jointed; old world species of slender form. (Vandex, Ethiop.) VANDfCID^ Abdomen of male broadened at the middle; antennae with 12-15 joints; elytra abbreviated; new world species of stout form. (Strongylosis, Neotrop.) STRONGYLOPSALtDID^ 22. Body not strongly flattened 23 Body strongly flattened. (Sparatta, Parasparatta, Prosparatta, Neotrop.; Auchenomus, Ethiop., Malay.) SPARATTID^E 23. Head transverse, the median and frontal sutures strong and deep; eyes large and prominent. (Spongiphora, Purex, Neotrop.; Vostox, Am.; Spongovostox, tropicopol.; Marava, Austromal.) SPONGIPH6RID,E Head narrow, the sutures weak or obsolete; eyes small, no longer than the first joint of the antennae. (Labia, cosmop.; Prolabia, tropicopol.; Larex, Neotrop.; Chaetospania, Ethiop., Indoaustr.; Andex, Austr.) LABUD^E CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 117 24. Second joint of tarsi with a narrow lobe produced beneath the third joint; moderately stout or robust species. (Chelisoches, Ethiop., Indoaustr.; finkrates, Proreus, Indomal.; Solenosoma Ind.; Kleiduchus, Austr.) CHELIS6CHID^ Second joint of tarsi with a dilated lobe on each side (Fig. 140) . . .25 25. Sternal plates strongly transverse; elytra much reduced in size; abdomen depressed and dilated; pygidium transverse. (Fig. 128). (Chelidura, Burriola, Palaearc., Mesochelidura, Palaearc., Ethiop.) CHELIDURID.E Sternal plates not very decidedly transverse 26 26. Antennal joints not very long and slender, the fourth often much shorter than the third and the first much shorter, than the head 27 Antennal joints all long and slender; fourth not shorter than the third; first longer and thicker than the others (Fig. 139) ... 30 27. Meso- and metasternum and pygidium broad; forceps remote, not depressed; elytra entire or abbreviated. (Fig. 140). (Anechura, Mesasiobia, Palaearc, Neotrop.; Pseudochelidura, Palaearc; Pterygida, Allodahlia, Indomal.) ANECHURID^ Meso- and metasternum quadrate or narrow; pygidium narrow .28 28. Abdomen cylindrical, not depressed 29 Abdomen depressed; forceps flattened or cylindrical; mesosternum rounded posteriorly; antennae with 12-15 joints; elytra rarely shortened. (Fig. 133). (Forficula, Holarc, Ethiop., Indomal. (F. auricularia, European earwig); Chelidurella, Apterygida, Palaearc, Ethiop.; Doru, Amer., Austr.; Skalistes, Neotrop.; Hypurgus, Indomal.) FORFICLILID^ 29. Elytra entire, not shortened; mesosternum rounded posteriorly; Old World species. (Eudohrnia, Ind.; Kosmetor, Indomal.) eudohrniim; Elytra abbreviated; mesosternum truncate. (Neolobophora, Neotrop.; Archidux, Ethiop.) NEOLOBOPHORID^E 30. Sternal plates generally transverse, at least relatively broad; meta- sternum truncate; abdomen and forceps depressed; New World species. (Fig. 139). (Ancistrogaster, Vlax, Praos, Tristanella, Paracosmia, Neotrop.) ANCISTROGASTRID^ Sternal plates narrow; metasternum narrow, excavated posteriorly. 31 31. Abdomen but little depressed, surface rather convex; legs long and slender; pygidium narrow; forceps remote, slender. (Fig. 129). (Dinex, Neotrop.; Timomenus, Eparchus, Cordax, Indomal.; Opisthocosmia, Ethiop., Malay.; Thalperus, Ethiop.). OPISTHOCOSMIIDjE Abdomen depressed and rather dilated; legs short; pygidium strongly transverse. (Diaperasticus, Ethiop.) DIAPERASTlCID^: 118 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology LITERATURE ON DERMAPTERA FORFICULINA AND ARIXENINA See also Orthoptera (s. /.), p. 105 Bei-Bienko, M. Faune de l'URSS. Insectes, Dermapteres. Inst. zool. Acad. Sci. URSS, (N.S.), No. 5, viii + 239 pp., 67 figs. (1936). Borelli, A. Dermapteres de Madagascar. Bull. Soc. Nat. Luxembourg, 42, pp. 56-58 (1932). Dermaptera de la Presqu'ile Malaise. Bull. Raffles Mus., No. 7, pp. 80-95, 10 figs. (1932). Bormans, A. and Krauss, H. Dermaptera. Das Tierreich, Lief. 11 (1900). Burr, M. Revision of Forficulidae and Chelisochida?. Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1907, pp. 91-134 (1907). Dermaptera. Fauna of British India. London (1910). Revision of the Labiduridae. Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1910, pp. 161-203 (1910). Dermaptera. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 122, 112 pp. (1911). Revision of the Genus Diplatys. Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1911, pp. 21-47 (1911). Burr, M. and Jordan, K. On Arixenia, a Suborder of Dermaptera. Trans. 2d Ent. Congr. (1913). Chopard, L. Orthopteres et Dermapteres. Faune de France, pt. 3, 212 pp. (1922). Dermapteres. In Grasse, Traite de Zoologie, 9, pp. 745-770, 26 figs. (1949). Gunther, K. Die Dermapteren der deutschen Kaiserin-Augusta-Flusse-Ex- pedition. Mitt. zool. Mus. Berlin, 15, pp. 55-83 (1929). Dermaptera der deutschen limnologischen Sunda-Expedition. SB. Ges. naturf. Freunde Berlin, 1932, pp. 471-491, 8 figs.; Arch. Hydrobiol., Suppl. 12, pp 503-517, 11 figs. (1933). Hincks, W. D. Dermaptera of Burma and British India. Ark. Zool., 39A, 43 pp., 23 figs. (1947). Notes on Mauritian Earwigs. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (11)14, pp. 517- 540 (1947). Kirby, W. F. A Synonymic Catalogue of the Orthoptera, vol. 1. British Mus. Nat. Hist., London (1904). Krauss, H. Forficulidae. Das Tierreich, Lief. 11, pp. 1-129. (1900). Lameere, A. Dermaptera. Precis de Zoologie. Rec. Inst. zool. Torley- Rousseau, 4, pp. 279-287 (1935). Maccagno, T. Dermatteri. II genere Cylindrogaster Stal. Boll. Mus. Zool. Anat. Comp. Torino, (3)41, 15 pp., 5 figs. (1926-31). Rehn, J. A. G. The Dermaptera of the American Museum Congo Expedition with a Catalogue of the Belgian Congo Species. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., 49, pp. 349-413 (1924). Townes, H. List of Generic and Subgeneric Names of Dermaptera. Ann. Ent. Soc. America, 38, pp. 343-356 (1945). Walden, B. H. Dermaptera of Connecticut. Bull. State Geol. Nat. Hist. Surv. Connecticut, No. 16, pp. 44-47 (1911). CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 119 Zacher, F. Studien iiber das System der Protodermaptercn. Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f. Syst., 30, pp. 303-400 (1911). Zimmerman, E. C. Dermaptera. Insects of Hawaii, 2, pp. 197-212 (1948). DIPLOGLOSSATA Hansen, H. J. On the Structure and Habits of Hemimerus talpoides. Ent. Tidskr., 15, pp. 65-93 (1894). Jordan, K. Anatomy of Hemimerus. Novitat. Zool., 16, pp. 327-330 (1909). Krauss, H. Forficulidse. Das Tierreich, Lief. 11, pp. 130-132 (1900). Rehn, J. A. G. and J. W. H. Studv of the Genus Hemimerus. Proc. Philadel- phia Acad. Sci., 87, pp. 457-508 (1925). ORDER EMBI6DEA (EMBIIDlNA, EMBlOlDEA, EMBIdPTERA, OLIGONEURA, &T16PTERA) Elongate, slender, feeble insects of small or moderate size. Head large, elongate; eyes small or of moderate size; ocelli absent; antennae slender, many-jointed (16-32). Thorax elongate; prothorax large, free; meso- and metathorax each about as large as the prothorax; males usually winged, females always wingless. Wings similar, pubescent, elongate, the media and cubitus much reduced; no anal fan or lobe. Wings lying flat on the abdomen when at rest. Abdomen ten-segmented; long, narrow and with parallel sides; tip of abdomen and cerci usually strongly asymmetrical in the male; cerci two-jointed. Tarsi three-jointed; first joint of front tarsi swollen, containing glands for spinning a silken web in which the insects live. Metamorphosis gradual, incomplete. A small group, restricted to the tropics and subtropics. 1. Mandibles with two or three small, but distinct dentations at tip .2 Mandibles sharply pointed at tip, but without dentations. (Anisem- bia, Chelicerca, Am.) ANISEMBIID^E 2. Either the anterior or posterior branch of the radial sector forked in both wings, or at least in the hind wing 3 Both branches of the radial sector simple, unbranched. (Oligotoma, widespr.; Gynembia, Nearc.) (Fig. 147) OLIGGT6MIDjE 3. Anterior branch of the radial sector simple; the posterior sector branched 4 Anterior branch of the radial sector branched; the posterior sector simple. (Teratembia, Neotrop.) TERATEMBlID^E 4. Left cercus smooth on its inner side 5 Left cercus with minute denticulations on at least a part of its inner side, these usually located on a lobe or expansion (Fig. 146). (Embia, Haploembia, widespr.; Rhagadochir, Donaconethis, Ethiop.; Pararhagadochir, Neotrop.) EMBlIDiE 120 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Left cercus one-jointed in adult male, with no distinct second joint. (Notoligotoma, Austr.; Ptilocerembia, Mai.) NOTOLIGOT6MID^E Wings with well developed venation; anterior branch of the cubitus forked; abdominal terminalia nearly symmetrical; comparatively large species (15—18 mm. in length). (Clothoda, Neotrop.) CLOTHODIDiE Wings with poorly developed venation, only the first three branches of the radius and one cubital vein distinct; abdominal terminalia strongly asymmetrical; small species (5—8 mm. in length). (Oligembia, Neotrop.) OLIGEMBIIDjE Figs. 143-147. Embiodea 143. Oligotoma, female (Melander) Oligotomidae. 144. Donaconethis, wings (Enderlein) Embiidae. 145. Rhagadochir. a, front tarsus; b, middle tarsus; c, hind tarsus (Silvestri) Embiidae. 146. Rhagadochir, apex of abdomen of male (Enderlein) Embiidae. 147. Oligotoma, wings (Enderlein) Oligotomidae. LITERATURE ON EMBIODEA Davis, C. Studies in Australian Embioptera. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, 61, pp. 229-253, 43 figs.; pp. 254-258, 7 figs. (1936). Family Classification of the Order Embioptera. Ann. Ent. Soc. America, 33, pp. 677-682 (1940). Taxonomic Notes on the Order Embioptera, I-XX. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, 64, pp. 181-190, 5 figs.; pp. 217-222, 21 figs.; pp. 369- CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 121 384, 36 figs.; pp. 474-495, 83 figs.; pp. 559-575, 51 figs.; 65, pp. 171- 191, 83 figs.; pp. 323-352, 41 figs.; pp. 362-387, 83 figs.; 525-542, 27 figs. (1939-40). Revision of Embioptera of Western Australia. Journ. Roy. Soc. West Australia, 28, pp. 139-147 (1944). ^ Denis, R. Embiopteres. In Grasse, Traite de Zoologie, 9, pp. 723-743 (1949). Enderlein, G. Embiidinen. Coll. Zool. Selys-Longchamps, fasc. 3 (1912). Friedrichs, K. Das Gemeinschaftsleben der Embiiden, und Kenntnis der Arten. Arch. Naturg., N. F., 3, pp. 405-444, 13 figs. (1934). Hagen, H. A Monograph of the Embidina. Canadian Ent., 17, pp. 142-155 (1885). Krauss, H. A. Monographic der Embien. Zoologica, Heft 60, 78 pp. (1911). Lameere, A. Embioptera. In Precis de Zoologie. Publ. Inst. zool. Torley- Rousseau, 4, pp. 275-279 (1935). Navas, L. Embiopteros de la America meridional. Broteria, 16, pp. 85-110 (1919). Ross, E. S. Revision of the Embioptera of North America. Ann. Ent. Soc. America, 33, pp. 629-676 (1940). Revision of the Embioptera of the New World. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 94, pp. 401-504 (1944). The Embioptera of New Guinea. Pan-Pacific Ent., 24, pp. 97-116 (1948). Taborsky, K. Monographische Studien ueber die Bulgarischen Embidinen. Sborn. Nar. Mus. Praze, IB, pp. 241-251 (1937). Tillyard, R. J. The Embioptera or Web-spinners of Western Australia. Journ. Roy. Soc. West Australia, 9, pp. 61-68 (1923). Verhoeff, K. W. Zur vergleichende Morphologie und Systematik der Em- biiden. Act. Acad. Leopold. Carol., 82, pp. 145-204 (1904). Zimmerman, E. C. Embioptera. Insects of Hawaii, 2, pp. 191-196 (1948). ORDER IS6PTERA Small or medium-sized, elongate, feeble insects living in large colonies and occurring as winged sexual individuals and wingless workers and soldiers; usually with weak chitinization, especially in the sterile castes which are soft-bodied and white, except for the heavily chitinized head. Head large, free, rather vertical; eyes and two ocelli usually present in the winged forms, or absent in the workers. Mandibles strong, often very large; antennae filamentous, more or less moniliform. Prothorax free, but much smaller than the head. Legs similar, formed for running or walking; tarsi four- or rarely five-jointed, with well developed claws. Wings similar, long and narrow, deciduous soon after maturity at a preformed transverse suture near the base; long and narrow, super- imposed over the abdomen, the hind pair very rarely with an anal area; venation almost always much reduced and without crossveins. Cerci short, one- to three-, rarely eight-jointed. Metamorphosis very incomplete. White ants, Termites. 122 bulletin: museum of comparative zoolocy Males and Females {Sexual Forms) 1. Tarsi four-jointed in all castes, sometimes with the indication of a fifth joint; fore and hind wings similar, narrow, the hind pair without anal lobe; transverse basal suture present on all four wings 2 Tarsi five-jointed; hind wing with a well developed anal area which is capable of being folded beneath the remainder of the wing; transverse basal suture present only on fore wing. (Mastotermes, Austr.) (Fig. 154) MASTOTERMiTIMl 2. Fontanel (the opening of the frontal gland on the face) wanting; radius usually with one or more superior branches forming a costal field; clypeus usually not divided by a median line 3 Fontanel always present in the adult; radius simple, not or indistinctly forming any superior branches; clypeus with a median sutural line. Species usually living in populous colonies, often in large and elaborately constructed nests 5 3. Ocelli absent 4 Ocelli present; basal stub of fore wing short; cerci two-jointed; no true worker caste. (Kalotermes, Neotermes, all warm regions; Cryptotermes, widespr.; Calcaritermes, Am.). (PROTERMfTI- D/E, CALOTERM1TID/E) KALOTERMfTID^E 4. Worker caste wanting, living in small colonies in wood; basal stub of fore wing longer than that of hind wing . . . .TER.MOPSID.fli a. Tarsi with pulvilli, a fifth joint separated from the fourth on the upper side; cerci long, four- to eight-jointed. (Archotermopsis, Ind., also fossil in Baltic amber; Hodotermopsis, Indomal.) TERMOPSiNfli Tarsi without pulvilli, only four tarsal joints visible b b. Eyes of the soldier caste well developed, clearly composed of facets around the periphery; cerci four- or five-jointed. (Stolotermes, Austr., S. Afr.) STOLOTERMITlNfli Eyes of the soldier caste poorly developed; cerci five-jointed. Species nesting in the trunks of trees. (Porotermes, Austr., Chile; Planitermes, S. Afr.) POROTERMITlNflE Worker caste present, living in populous underground colonies; integument of soldiers and workers strongly pigmented; basal stub of fore wing not reaching to the base of the stub of hind wing. (Hodotermes, Ethiop.; Anacanthotermes, Holarc). HODOTERMlTIDfli 5. Stubs of fore wings longer than those of the hind wings (except the African Psammotermes); cerci two-jointed; wing surface often reticulated; radial sector present, simple; wings usually more or less transparent. (Rhinotermes, Serritermes, Neotrop.; Reticuli- CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 123 termes, Holarc; Arrhinotermes, Coptotermes, Schedorhinotermes, widespr.; Termitogeton, Indomal.). {MESOTERMlTlD/E) RHINOTERMfTID,E A Figs. 148-154. Isoptera 148. Termes, queen (Hegh) Termitidae. 149. Kalotermes, wings (Kalotermitidae). 150. Nasutitermes, head of worker. Termitidae. 151. Nasutitermes, mandible of worker. Termitidae. 152. Reticulitermes, wings (Banks) Rhinotermitidae. 153. Termes, worker (Hegh) Termitidae. 154. Mastotermes, wings (Desneux) Mastotermitidae. Stubs of fore wings short, not reaching the base of the hind wings; cerci one- or two-jointed; wing surface never completely reticu- lated; radius strongly reduced or absent; wings more or less opaque. (Microtermes, Amitermes, Microcerotermes, Nasutitermes, widespr.; Termes, Macrotermes, Ethiop., Indomal.; Cubitermes, Ethiop.; Capritermes, Indomal.; Neocapritermes, Neotrop., Ethiop.; Microcapritermes, Austr.). (METATERMlTID/E) TERMfTID,E Soldiers 1. Tarsi distinctly five-jointed MASTOTERMITIDAE Tarsi four-jointed, rarely with an indistinct fifth joint 2 124 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology 2. Fontanel absent; eyes present; mandibles often with very strong teeth 3 Fontanel present; eyes entirely absent or rarely slightly indicated . . 4 3. Compound eyes usually very distinct, black, rarely not pigmented; antennae with 23 to 31 joints; legs rather long and weak, extend- ing well beyond body; cerci prominent, usually with three or more joints HODOTERMITID^ Compound eyes present as white, rarely pigmented, finely faceted spots; antenna; with 10 to 20 joints; cerci very short, with two or, rarely, three joints KALOTERMfTID^ 4. Pronotum flat, without separated lobes in front; head not nasute; mandibles not toothed RHINOTERMfTID^ Pronotum saddle-shaped, with distinct lobes in front; head either nasute or with toothed mandibles TERMlTID-fls LITERATURE ON ISOPTERA Banks, N. Antillean Isoptera. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Harvard, 62, pp. 475-489 (1919). A Revision of the Nearctic Termites. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 108 (1920). Desneux, J. Termitidse. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 25, 52 pp. (1905). Emerson, A. E. Termites of Kartabo, British Guiana. Zoologica, New York, 6, pp. 291-459 (1925). Termites of the Belgian Congo and Cameroon. Bull. American Mus. Nat. Hist., 57, pp. 401-574, 19 pis., 79 figs. (1928). Revision of the Genera of Fossil and Recent Termopsinje. Univ. Cali- fornia Publ. Ent., 6, pp. 165-196, 40 figs. (1933). Revision of Syntermes (Termitidse). Bull. American Mus. Nat. Hist., 83, pp. 427-472, 12 figs. (1945). Emerson, A. E. and E. M. Miller. Key to the Termites of Florida. Ent. News, 55, pp. 184-187 (1943). Froggatt, W. W. Australian Termitida?. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, 10-12 (1895-97) (several parts). Fuller, C. The Termites of South Africa. South African Journ. Nat. Hist., 3, pp. 14-52; 70-130 (1921-22). Grasse, P. P. Systematique et biologie des Termites de lAfrique occidentale franchise. Ann. Soc. Ent. France, 106, pp. 1-100 (1937). Isopteres. Traite de Zoologie, 9, pp. 408-540, 101 figs. (1949). Harris, W. V. Termites of Uganda. Proc. Roy. Ent. Soc, B, 17, pp. 73-83 (1948). Hegh, E. Les Termites. Brussels, 756 pp. (1922). Republished with additions in Bull. Agric. Congo Beige, Brussels. 11-14 (1920-23). Hill, G. F. Isoptera from the Australian Region. Melbourne Counc. Sci. Industr. Res. Commonw. Australia, 479 pp., 24 pis., 353 figs. (1942). Holmgren, N. Termitenstudien. I-IV. Konig. Svensk. Vet. Akad. Handl., 44, 46, 48, 50 (1909-13). CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 125 Hozawa, S. Revision of the Japanese Termites. Journ. Coll. Agric. Tokyo, 35, pt. 7, 161 pp. (1915). Kemner, N. A. Termitida?. Fauna Sumatrensis. Tijdschr. Ent., 73, pp. 298— 324, 24 figs. (1930). Die Termitenfauna von Amboina. Lunds Univ. Arsskr., N. F., 27, pp. 1-53, 2 pis., 15 figs. (1931). Studien iiber die Termiten Javas und Celebes. K. Svenska Vetensk. Akad. Handl., (3)13, 241 pp., 22 pis., 53 figs. (1934). Lameere, A. Isoptera. In Precis de Zoologie. Publ. Inst. zool. Torley-Rous- seau, 4, pp. 305-328 (1935). Light, S. F. Notes on Philippine Termites. Philippine Journ. Sci., 42, pp. 13-58, 8 pis., 1 fig. (1930). (Other notes in vols. 18, 19, 40 [1921-29].) Termites of Western Mexico. Univ. California Publ. Ent., 6, pp. 79- 164, 5 pis., 33 figs. (1933). Pendlebury, H. M. List of Malayan Termites. Malayan Forest Rec, No. 8, pp. 45-56 (1931). Silvestri, F. Termiti e termitofili dell' America meridionale. Redia, 1, pp. 1-234 (1903). Termiti e termitofili dell' Eritrea. Redia, 3, pp. 341-359 (1906). Termitidi e termitofili dell' Africa occidentale. Boll. Lab. Zool. Agrar. Portici, 9, 12 and 14 (1914-20). Sjostedt, Y. Monographic der Termiten Afrikas. Svensk. Vet. Akad. Handl., 34 and 38 (1900-04). Revision der Termiten Afrikas. K. Svenska Vet. Akad. Handl., (3), 3, 419 pp. (1926). Snyder, T. E. Our Enemy the Termite. Second Edition. 257 pp. Comstock Pub. Co., Ithaca, N. Y. (1948). Catalogue of the Termites of the World. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 112, 490 pp. (1949). Zimmerman, E. C. Isoptera. Insects of Hawaii, 2, pp. 159-189 (1948). ORDER CORRODENTIA (PSOCOPTERA, COPEOGNATHA) Usually small or minute insects, rarely of moderate size, with short, soft body and usually winged. Head large, free, vertical, with a strong Y-shaped suture above; eyes large and prominent, except in a few wingless forms; three ocelli generally present; antennas long and slen- der, filiform or bristle-like, many (13—50) jointed; mandibles strong, toothed and with a grinding surface. Prothorax almost always very small; mesothorax and metathorax usually separated, although rarely completely fused. Wings usually ample, sometimes much reduced or entirely absent; when at rest generally held in a sloping position, folded backwards over the body; fore pair larger than the hind pair, sometimes scaly or hairy; venation reduced, with few or no crossveins; one or several of the veins frequently strongly curved. Abdomen usually short, with nine or ten segments; cerci absent. Legs similar, fitted for 126 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology running, the coxae close together; tarsi two- or three-jointed, the first joint very long; two tarsal claws. Metamorphosis incomplete, the nymph similar to the adult form; terrestrial in all stages. Psocids, Book lice, Bark lice. 1. Tarsi three-jointed. (Fig. 165) 2 Tarsi two-jointed. (Fig. 156) 10 163 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163. 164. 165. 166. Figs. 155-166. Corrodentia Psocus, wings (Comstock and Needham) Psocidae. Caccilius, tarsus (Tillyard) Caeciliidae. Lepinotus (Tillyard) Atropidae. Oxypsocus, wings (Tillyard) Lepidopsocidae. Perientomum, wings (Enderlein) Perientomidae. Embidotroctes, wings (Kolbe) Liposcelidae. Caccilius, wings (Tillyard) Caeciliidae. Thyrsophorus, wings (Enderlein) Thyrsophoridae. Vulturops, wings (Corbett and Hargreaves) Psoquillidae. Mesopsocus, wings (Tillyard) Mesopsocidae. Myopsocus, tarsus (Tillyard) Myopsocidae. Liposcelis (Marlatt) Liposcelidae. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 127 2. Thorax composed of three distinct parts, the mesothorax separated from the metathorax by a suture; usually winged, rarely with the wings reduced or absent 3 Thorax composed of two parts, the meso- and metathorax fused and without suture between them; wings usually entirely absent, if present without forked veins; second joint of palpi without clubbed sense organs. (Figs. 160, 166). (Liposcelis (= Troctes) (L. divinatbria, Book louse, Cereal psocid), cosmop.; Tropusia, widespr.; Pachytroctes, Palmare; Embidopsocus, Neotrop.; Em- bidotroctes, Ethiop.) (TR6CTIDA1) (Including PACHY- TR6CTID/E) LIPOSCfiLIDiE 3. Wings present; prothorax much smaller than the mesothorax ... .4 Fore wings absent or very small and without venation; hind wings entirely absent; prothorax larger than the mesothorax. (Atro- pos ( = Trbgium) {A. pulsatbria, Death watch), widespr.; Lepi- notus (Fig. 157), Leprolepis, Hyperetes). (Including TRO- GllDA?) ATROPIDjE 4. Wings fully formed, with complete venation 5 Venation of wings incomplete, the fore wings oval or rounded and much thickened; the veins usually very broad; hind wings re- duced or absent; without scales. (Psoquilla, Holarc; Psocinella, Vulturops, Am.) (Fig. 163) PSOQUfLLID^E 5. Second branch of cubitus and first anal vein in fore wing meeting or closely approaching each other at apex (Fig. 164) 7 Second branch of cubitus and first anal vein in fore wing divergent toward apex, or at least not approaching each other; body and wings clothed with hairs or scales; wings more or less pointed; antennae with more than thirteen joints (Fig. 158) 6 6. Hind wings with a very narrow closed cell at the base between the media and cubitus; wing scales of symmetrical form, similarly curved on their two sides; antennae with 20 to 25 joints. (Fig. 159). (Perientomum, Ind.) PERIENTOMID^E Hind wings without a closed cell; wing scales usually asymmetri- cal; antennae with 26 to 47 joints. (Fig. 158). (Lepidopsdcus, Lepidilla, Echinopsocus, Echmepteryx, Oxypsocus). (EMPHERl- ID/E, LEPlDlLLlD/E) LEPIDOPSOCID^ 7. Antennae 13-jointed 8 Antennae with 22 to 25 joints; body and wings not scaled; media two- or three-branched; prothorax visible from above. (Phyl- lipsocus, Psylloneura, Deipnopsocus, Rhyopsocus). (Including PSOCATR6PIDA?) PHYLLIPS6CID^ 8. No scales on body or wings; only one anal vein in the fore wing . . .9 Body and wings scaled; two anal veins in the fore wing. (Am- phientomum, Ethiop., Ind.; Tineomorpha, Ind.; Stigmatopathus, Cymatopsocus, Indomal.) AMPHIENTOMID^E 128 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology 9. Apex of cubitus in fore wing bent forward into a loop toward the media, but not touching it (Fig. 164); very small species. (Hemineura, Elipsocus, Philotarsus, Mesopsocus, Psilopsocus, Actenotarsus). (Including EL1PSOCID/E, PHILOTARSID/E). MESOPSOCIDiE Cubital loop in fore wing either just touching the media, or fusing with it for a short distance (Fig. 165); larger species. (Myopsocus, Propsocus, Pentacladus, Photodes, Lichenomima, Tricladellus) MYOPS6CIDiE 10. Prothorax well developed, visible from above; wings reduced in the female; of full size in the male, but with the venation in- complete. (Archipsocus, Ind.) ARCHIPSOCID,E Prothorax very small, not visible from above 11 11. Apex of cubitus in fore wing not bent forward into a loop, or if thus bent the loop does not meet the media. (Figs. 156, 161). A cosmopolitan group. (Caecilius, Amphipsocus, Callistoptera, Epipsocus, Pterodela). (Including EPIPSOCIDJE, AM PHI P- S6CID/E, PTEROD&LID/E, STENOPSOCIDJE). (PERIPS6- CID/E, LACHESlLUD/E) CyECILIIM Apical part of cubitus bent forward into a loop that touches the media or fuses with it for a short distance 12 12. Second branch of radial sector (R 4 + 5 ) fused with the media or connected with it by a crossvein (Fig. 162); third and fourth antennal joints lengthened, thicker and more densely hairy than the joints beyond; large species. (Thyrsophorus, Dictyopsocus, Ischnopteryx, Neotrop.) THYRSOPHORIDiE Second branch of the radial sector free from the media; third and fourth antennal joints similar to the apical ones; moderate- sized or rather large species. An extensive and cosmopolitan group. (Ceratipsocus, Amphigerontia, Eremopsocus, Hemipsocus, Lasiopsocus, Psocus, Ta:niostigma) (Fig. 155). (Including HEMIPS6CIDJE) PSOCIM LITERATURE ON CORRODENTIA Badonnel, A. Contribution a l'etude des Psocopteres a Madagascar. Bull. Acad. Malgache (N. S.), 18, pp. 97-120, 4 pis. (1935). Psocopteres. Faune de France, 42, 164 pp., 375 figs. (1943). Psocopteres du Congo beige. Rev. Zool. Bot. Afric, 39, pp. 137-196 (1946). Banks, N. Classification of the Psocida?. Psyche, 36, pp. 321-325 (1929). Chapman, P. J. Corrodentia of the United States. Journ. New York Ent. Soc, 38, pp. 219-280; 319-402, 10 pis. (1930). Enderlein, G. Die Psocidenfauna Perus. Zool. Jahrb., Abth. f. Syst., 14, pp. 133-160 (1900). Morphologie, Gruppierung und systematische Stellung der Corrodentien. Zool. Anz., 26 (1903). CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 129 Die Copeognathen des indoaustxalischen Faunengebietes. Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. Hungarici, 1, pp. 179-344 (1903). Morphologisches System und Biologie der Atropinen und Troctinen. Jsgerskiold Zool. Exped. Egypt. No. 18, 58 pp. (1905). Die australischen Copeognathen. Zool. Jahrb., Abth. f. Syst., 23, pp. 401-412 (1906). Die Copeognathenfauna Japans. Zool. Jahrb., Abth. £. Syst., 23, pp. 243-256 (1906). The Scaly-winged Copeognatha. Spolia Zeylandica, 4, pp. 39-122 (1906). Copeognatha. In Tierwelt Mitteleuropas, 4, Lief. 2, pp. VII, 1-16 (1928). Die Copeognathen-Fauna der Seychellen. Trans. Linn. Soc. London (2) Zool., 19, pp. 207-240, 3 pis., 52 figs. (1932). Gurney, A. B. A Synopsis of the Psocids of the Tribe Psyllipsocini. Ann. Ent. Soc. America, 36, pp. 195-220, 6 pis. (1943). Hickman, V. V. On Tasmanian Copeognatha [Corrodentia]. Occ. Pap. Roy. Soc. Tasmania, 1933, pp. 77-89, 6 figs. (1933). Jentsch, S. Psocopterenfauna in Nordwestdeutschland. Verh. Ver. naturw. Heimatsforsch., 27, pp. 114-121 (1938). Karny, H. Systematik der Orthopteroiden Insekten. Treubia, 12, pp. 431-461 (1930). Kolbe, H. Monographic der deutschen Psociden. Jahresber. zool. Sect. Westf. Ver., 8, 1879-80, pp. 74-142 (1880). Lameere, A. Psocoptera. In Precis de Zoologie. Rec. Inst. zool. Torley- Rousseau, 4, pp. 352-359 (1935). Menon, R. Studies on Indian Copeognatha. Indian Journ. Ent., 3, pp. 13-23; 4, pp. 23-42, 48 figs. (1941-42). Okamoto, H. Die Psociden Japans. Trans. Sapporo Nat. Hist. Soc, 2, pp. 113-147 (1907). Pearman, J. V. The Taxonomy of the Psocoptera. Proc. Roy. Ent. Soc. London, (B) 5, pp. 58-62 (1936). Perrier, R. Psocopteres de la France. Faune de France, 3, pp. 72-76, 8 figs. (1934). Roesler, R. Neue und wenig bekannte Copeognathengattungen. Zool. Anz., 129, pp. 225-243; ibid., 130, pp. 1-25 (1940). Ueber einige Copeognathengenera. Stettin, ent. Zeitg., 104, pp. 1-14 (1943). Die Gattungen der Copeognathen. Stettin, ent. Zeitg., 105, pp. 1 18 — 161 (1944). Sommerman, K. M. Revision of North American Lachesilla. Ann. Ent. Soc. America, 39, pp. 627-657, 4 pis. (1946). Tillyard, R. J. Monograph of Psocoptera or Copeognatha of New Zealand. Trans. New Zealand Inst, 54, pp. 170-196 (1923). Zimmerman, E. C. Corrodentia. Insects of Hawaii, 2, pp. 217-252 (1948). 130 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology ORDER ZORAPTERA Minute, terrestrial species of social habits, living in colonies; dimorphic, both sexes represented by winged and wingless individuals. Body de- pressed. Head free, somewhat inclined. Antennae moniliform or filiform, nine-jointed, the second and often also the third joint smaller than the others; in the nymph eight-jointed. Mandibles well developed, toothed and fitted for biting. Eyes and ocelli present in the winged form; absent, or the eyes present as vestiges, in the wingless one. Thorax large, but 167 Figs. 167-169. Zoraptera 167. Zorotypus, cercus (Karny) Zorotypidae. 168. Zorotypus (Silvestri) Zorotypidae. 169. Zorotypus, winged form (Caudell) Zorotypidae. no wider than the head; prothorax free, not concealing the head nor expanded laterally; meso- and metathorax distinctly separated. Abdomen elongate-oval, never much longer than the thorax, with ten strongly transverse segments; cerci short, oval, one-jointed, with a bristle-like appendage at tip. Legs similar, formed for running; hind femora stout, sometimes armed beneath with spiny bristles; tarsi two-jointed, the first joint short, the second with two claws at tip. Metamorphosis gradual, the nymph similar to the adult, especially to the wingless form. Winged form with narrow, membranous wings, the fore pair larger; venation greatly reduced; wings commonly falling off after maturity, leaving a stub attached to the body, but not separating at a preformed suture; body of winged form more heavily chitinized than in the wingless one. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 131 Both the alate and apterous forms of both sexes are fertile and there is no worker caste. One family. (Zorotypus, Nearc, Neotrop., Indomal., Ethiop., Hawaii, Samoa, Fiji). (Figs. 167, 168, 169) ZOROTYPIDiE LITERATURE ON ZORAPTERA Bolivar y Pieltain, C. Estudio de un nuevo Zoraptero de Mexico. An. Escuela Nac. Cien. Biol., 1, pp. 515-522 (1940). Caudell, A. N. Zoraptera not an Apterous Order. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, 22, pp. 84-97 (1920). Denis, R. Zorapteres. In Grasse, Traite de Zoologie, 9, pp. 545-555, 10 figs. (1949). Gurney, A. B. Synopsis of the Order Zoraptera. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, 40, pp. 57-87 (1938). Zoraptera from Fiji. Occ. Papers Bishop Mus., 15, pp. 161-165 (1939). Lameere, A. Zoraptera. In Precis de Zoologie. Publ. Inst. zool. Torley-Rous- seau, 4, pp, 366-368 (1935). Silvestri, F. Descrizione di un nuova ordine di insetti. Boll. Zool. Gen. Agrar. Poruci, 7, pp. 193-209 (1913). Zimmerman, E. C. Zoraptera. Insects of Hawaii, 2, pp. 213-216 (1948). ORDER MALL6PHAGA (L1P6PTERA) Small wingless insects averaging two mm. and very rarely over five mm. in length. Body oval, or elongate, very strongly flattened; usually strongly chitinized and generally with a conspicuous color pattern of pale or yellowish markings contrasting with spots or bands of dark brown or black. Mouth inferior, mandibles strong; antennae three- to five-jointed; prothorax free, rarely fused with the mesothorax; legs short, no cerci. Metamorphosis very incomplete. External parasites of birds, more rarely of mammals, during entire life, feeding on feathers, fur or skin. Bird lice, Biting lice. 1. Abdomen consisting of more than seven segments; basal pair of abdominal spiracles usually on the second segment 2 Abdomen with only seven visible segments; basal pair of abdominal spiracles on the first segment. Parasites of mammals. (Heptap- sogaster, Neotrop.) HEPTAPSOGASTRIDiE 2. Palpi present, two- to four-joint.ed; antennae usually four-jointed and generally more or less distinctly clavate or capitate (Fig. 170), concealed in a groove on the underside of the head; man- dibles horizontal; meso- and metathorax usually separated by a suture. (Suborder AMBLYCERA) 3 Palpi absent; antennae three- or five-jointed, filiform, not con- 132 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology cealed; mandibles vertical; meso- and metathorax fused. (Sub- order ISCHN6CERA) 8 3. Tarsi with two claws; species usually infesting birds 4 Tarsi with at most a single claw on the middle and hind legs, and usually on the front pair also, although these rarely bear two claws; claw rarely wanting (Fig. 174); some of the legs almost always modified to form hair claspers. (Gyropus, Protogyropus, Monogyropus, Gliricola, on guinea pigs and other rodents, mainly Neotropical) GYR6PIM 171 172 >• — ^ 173 174 Figs. 170-174. Mallophaga 170. Gyropus, head (Ewing) Gyropidas. 171. Lipeurus (Paine) Philopteridx. 172. Philopterus (Paine) Philopterida:. 173. Gyropus, tip of front leg (Ewing) Gyropidae. 174. Gliricola, tip of front leg (Ewing) Gyropidae. 4. Antennae strongly clubbed, five-jointed; legs long and slender; body clothed with stiff, slender spines; species infesting Austral- ian kangaroos and wallabies. (Boopia, Heterodoxus, Latumcepha- lum) BOOPIIM) Antennae not strongly clubbed, four-jointed 5 5. Prothorax appearing like the metathorax inverted, usually fused with the mesothorax; only five abdominal segments with spir- acles. (Trimenopon, Philandesia, Cummingsia; Neotropical on rodents) TRIMENOP6NID^ Prothorax not appearing like the metathorax inverted 6 CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 133 6. Head evenly expanded behind, broadly triangular and strongly enlarged on the temples. (Menopon, widespr. (M. gallwce, Chicken louse); Colpocephalum, Myrsidea, Trindton, wide- spr.; on birds) MENOPONIDjE Head not evenly expanded and broadly triangular, not enlarged on the temples 7 7. Sides of head with a strong lateral swelling in front of the eye; spiracles on abdominal segments three to eight. (Laemoboth- rion, Holarc, Ethiop., Neotrop.; on birds). L.#;MOBOTHRiID,E Head with the sides straight or concave; spiracles on abdominal segments two to seven. (Ricinus (= Leiotheum), widespr.; Trochilcecetes, Am.; on birds). (LEIOTHEIDAi). . RIClNID^ 8. Tarsi with one claw; antennae three-jointed; species infesting mammals 9 Tarsi with two claws; antennae five-jointed 10 9. Tarsal claws simple, not dentate. (Trichodectes, Eutrichophilus, Bovicola, widespr.). (Including BOVIC6LIDA1). TRICHODECTID^ Tarsal claws of middle and hind legs dentate or serrate. (Dasyonyx). DASYONYGID^E 10. Species infesting birds 11 Species infesting mammals; head heavily chitinized at the sides and armed with strong hooks; last joint of antennae somewhat swollen or clubbed. (Trichophilopterus, Ethiop.) TRICHOPHILOPTERID^E 11. Meso- and metathorax clearly separated by a suture; eyes deeply constricted. (Nesiotinus, Kerguelen Is., on penguins). NESIOTINIDjE Meso- and metathorax not separated by a distinct suture. (Gon- iodes, Gonlocotes, Lipeurus (Fig. 171), Philooterus (Fig. 172), Degeeriella, Esthiopterum, widespr.; Aptencola, N. Zeal.; on birds). (Including MElNERTZHAGENlGLUD/E) . (GON16- DIDM) PHILOPTERID.E LITERATURE ON MALLOPHAGA Bedford, G. A. H. A New Genus (Neolignathus) from an Elephant Shrew. Ent. Monthly Mag., 56, pp. 87-90 (1920). Trichodectidae Parasitic on Procaviidae. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1932, pp. 709-730 (1932). Trichodectidae of African Carnivora. Parasitology, 24, pp. 350-364 (1932). Carriker, M. A. Studies in Neotropical Mallophaga. Pt. I. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 88, pp. 45-218, 32 pis. (1936); Pt. II. Lloydia, 3, pp. 281-350 (1940); Pt. III. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 95, pp. 81-233, 29 figs. (1944). 134 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Denny, H. Monographia Anoplurorum Brittanniae. London (1842). Eichler, W. Notulae Mallophagologicae, IV. Neue Gattungen und hohre Ein- heiten von Kletterfederlingen. Zool. Anz., 130, pp. 97-103, 1 fig. (1940). Dr. E. Mjoberg's Zoological Collections from Sumatra. 15. Mallophaga. Ark. Zool., 39A, 21 pp., 40 figs. (1947). Enderlein, G. Mallophaga. In Tierwelt Mitteleuropas, 4, Lief. 2, pp. VII 17-24 (1928). Ewing, H. E. Taxonomy, Biology and Distribution of Gyropidae. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 63, art. 20, pp. 1-42 (1924). Manual of External Parasites, xiv+225 pp., 96 figs. Bailliere, Tendall and Cox. London (1929). New World Trichodectidae. Journ. Parasitol., 22, pp. 233-246. (1936). Ferris, G. F. The Mallophagan Family Trimenoponidae. Parasitology, 14, pp. 75-86 (1922). The Mallophagan Family Menoponidae. I. Parasitology, 16, pp. 55-66 (1924). Fulmek, L. Die Mallophagen. Mitt, naturw. Ver. Univ. Wien, 5, pp. 1-50 (1907). Giebel, C. G. A. Insecta Epizoa. 308 pp. Leipzig (1874). Guimaraes, L. R. Especies da familia Philopteridae. Arq. Zool., 5, pp. 243-309 (1947). Harrison, L. The Genera and Species of Mallophaga. Parasitology, 9, pp. 1-156 (1916). Keler, S. Monographic der Ueberfamilie Trichodectoidea. Nova Acta Leop. Carol. Halle, (N.F.) 5, pp. 393-467, 40 figs. (1938). Ueberfamilie der Nirmoidea. Nova Acta Leop. Carol., (N. F.) 8, pp. 1-254, 4 pis., 114 figs. (1939). Ueber brasilianische Mallophagen. 2. Beitrag. Arb. morph. taxon. Ent. Biol., 6, pp. 222-253, 23 figs.; 10, pp. 177-204, 22 figs. (1939-43). Bestimmungstabelle der Ueberfamilie Trichodectoidea (Mallophaga). Stettin, ent. Zeitg., 105, pp. 167-191; 3 figs. (1944). Kellogg, V. L. Mallophaga. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 66, 87 pp. (1908). Kellogg, V. L. and Ferris, G. F. Anoplura and Mallophaga of North Amer- ican Mammals. Leland Stanford Jr. Univ. Pub. (1915). Lameere, A. Mallophaga. In Precis de Zoologie. Publ. Inst. zool. Torley- Rousseau, 4, pp. 359-366 (1935). Mjoberg, E. Studien iiber Mallophagen und Anopluren. Ark. f. Zool., 6, No. 13, 297 pp. (1910). A New Family and Three New Genera of Mallophaga. Ent. Tidskr., 40, pp. 93-96 (1919). Perrier, R. Mallophages de la France. Faune de France, 4, pp. 127-134, 32 figs. (1935). Seguy, E. Insectes ectoparasites (Mallophages, Anoploures, Siphonaptera). Faune de France, 43, pp. 23-407, (1944). Taschenberg, O. Die Mallophagen. Halle (1882). Thompson, G. B. A List of the Type-hosts of Mallophaga and the Lice de- scribed from them. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (11)14, pp. 373-388; 737-767; (12)1, pp. 335-368 (1947-48). Uchida, S. Studies on the Biting Lice (Mallophaga) of Japan and Adjacent CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 135 Territories (Suborder Ischnocera, Pt. 1). Japan. Med. Journ., 1, pp. 303- 326, 8 figs. (1948). Werneck, F. L. Os Malofagos de Mamiferos. Pt. 1. Amblycera e Ischnocera. Rev. Brasil. Biol., 243 pp., 431 figs. (1948); Pt. 2 (1950). Zimmerman, E. C. Mallophaga. Insects of Hawaii, 2, pp. 253-294 (1948). Zunker, M. Die Mallophagen des arktischen Gebietes. Fauna arcdca, 6, pp. 283-294, 14 figs. (1932). ORDER THYSANOPTERA (PHYS6PODA) Small or minute, usually depressed, slender insects with the wings often reduced in size, and frequently capable of jumping, feeding gen- erally on plant sap, or more rarely on animal juices. Head vertical, free; eyes well developed; usually three ocelli; mouthparts fitted for Figs. 175-178. Thysanoptera 175. Heliothrips (Russell) Thripidx. 176. Euthrips, apex of abdomen of female, showing ovipositor (Russell). 177. Thrips Thripidas. 178. Cephalothrips, head. (Peterson). sucking, inferior, asymmetrical, consisting of a triangular clypeus fused with the bases of the maxilla? to form a sheath that encloses the man- dibular and maxillary setse. Prothorax free; wings four, similar, nar- row, with few or no veins, closely fringed with long bristles, often vestigial or absent. Legs similar; tarsi one- or two-jointed, with one or two claws, and with a bladder-like or hoof-like enlargement at tip. Abdomen with ten visible segments; terminal one frequently tubular; basal one often closely attached to the thorax. Ovipositor present or 136 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology absent, when present consisting of four more or less parallel, often strongly curved pieces. Metamorphosis gradual, the nymphs very similar to the adult; wings developing externally; penultimate instar often quiescent. 1. Wing surface microscopically hairy; wings usually present, fore wing with a marginal vein and at least one longitudinal vein attaining the wing tip; last abdominal segment rarely tubular, in the female usually conical and longitudinally divided beneath, in the male usually rounded at tip; ovipositor present, saw-like, composed of four pieces. (Suborder TEREBRANTIA). 2 Wing surface bare, without pubescence; fore wing veinless, or at most with a single, abbreviated median vein, wings often absent; last abdominal segment tubular in both sexes and not divided beneath; no ovipositor. (Suborder TUBULIFERA) 11 2. Ovipositor curved upwards; wings usually broad, with the tips rounded; body not flattened; antennae nine-jointed 3 Ovipositor curved downwards; wings when present narrower and almost always pointed at tips; body more or less flattened; an- tennae six- to nine-jointed. (THRIPOIDEA) 7 3. Labial palpi with fewer joints than the maxillary palpi; all joints of antennae usually freely movable 4 Labial palpi with the same number of joints as the maxillary palpi, or with one more joint; last three to five joints of antennae closely united, not freely movable 6 4. Maxillary palpi with seven or eight joints 5 Maxillary palpi with three joints; labial palpi with two joints. (Melanothrips, Palaearc; Ankothrips, widespr.; Cranothrips, Austr.) (Including DACTULlOTHRlPIDM). MELANOTHRfPID^ 5. Labial palpi with four joints; wings greatly narrowed at the base, expanding broadly and rounded at apex. (Mymarothrips) MYMAROTHRfPID^ Labial palpi with three to five joints; wings not thus clavate. (Desmothrips, Austr.; 6rothrips, Nearc; Stomatothrips). OROTHRfPIDyE 6. Antennae extremely long and slender, the third joint at least ten times as long as thick and as long as the head (Fig. 179), joints three and four without elongated sensory areas; fore wing slen- der, without crossveins; anterior ocellus absent or very small. (Franklinothrips, Nearc, Ethiop.; Corynothriooides, Ethion.). FRANKLINOTHRfPID^ Antennae much shorter; joints three and four with elongated sen- sory areas; wings broader, the fore wing with distinct cross- veins; three well developed ocelli. (iEolothrips, Archaeolo'hriDS, Rhipidothrips). (COLEOPTRAT1D/E) . ^OLOTHRfPID^E CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 137 7. Antennae nine-jointed, sometimes apparently ten-jointed, without an apical stylus; front tarsus with a claw-like projection at the base of the second joint; third and fourth joints of antennae enlarged, conical. (Heterothrips, Am.). HETEROTHRfPID^ Antennae six- to eight-jointed, rarely with the second joint divided by a suture so that the antennae appear to be nine-jointed; an- tennae usually with a one- or two-jointed style at apex (Fig. 183); front tarsus simple, without appendage on second joint; third and fourth joints of antennae not conical 8 8. Antennae not moniliform, six- to eight-jointed, always with apical style; pronotum simple above, without longitudinal sutures; front and hind femora slender; ovipositor almost always well de- veloped 9 Antennae moniliform (Fig. 180), eight-jointed, without apical style; pronotum with a longitudinal suture at each side; front and hind femora greatly thickened (Fig. 182); ovipositor much re- duced. (Merothrips, Nearc, Neotrop.) MEROTHRfPID^ 9. Sixth joint of antennae well developed, usually as large as or larger than the fifth (Fig. 183) 10 Sixth or sixth and seventh joints of antennae very small, style-like, very much smaller than the fifth. (Ceratothrips, Palaearc). CERATOTHRfPID^ 10. Last abdominal segment in female cylindrical, very heavily chitin- ized, ninth and tenth segments with extremely long, stout, thorn- like bristles. (Panchaetothrips, India; Dinurothrips, Mac ru roth rips). PANCH^TOTHRIPID^; Last abdominal segment in female conical, weakly chitinized, rarely more heavily chitinized than the preceding segments; ninth and tenth segments never with large thorn-like bristles. (Figs. 175, 183, 185). (Heliothrips, Thrips, Frankliniella, Anaphothrips, Physothrips and many other genera). (STENOPTER1D/E). THRfPID^E 11. Maxillary palpi two-jointed; antennae with seven or eight, usually eight joints; middle coxae further apart than the other pairs. .12 Maxillary palpi one-jointed; antennae with four to seven joints; hind coxae further apart than the other pairs. (Fig. 181). (Uro- thrips, Ethiop.; Stephanothrips, Ethiop., Neotrop.; Bradythrips, Neotrop.; Bebelothrips, Palaearc). (UROTHRIPOIDEA). UROTHRIPID^E 12. Eighth segment of abdomen without peg-shaped projections on the posterior edge. 13 Eighth abdominal segment with long, posteriorly directed, peg- shaped projections along the posterior edge; last segment of abdomen extremely short and stout. (Chirothripoides). CHIROTHRIPOIDID^E 138 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology 13. Head not produced anteriorly in front of eyes; vertex not sharply conical, rarely prominently overhanging the base of the an- tennas 14 Head more or less produced in front of the eyes; vertex conical, usually prominently overhanging the base of the antenna; and bearing the front ocellus at its extremity; usually with a strong bristle in front of the eye. (Idolothrips, Gigantothrips, Actino- thrips) IDOLOTHRfPIDiE Figs. 179-185. Thysanoptera 179. Franklinothrips, antenna (Hood) Franklinothripidae. 180. Merothrips, antenna (Hood) Merothripidae. 181. Bradythrips, apex of abdomen of female (Hood) Urothripidae. 182. Merothrips, leg (Hood) Merothripidae. 183. Frankliniella, antenna (Karny) Thripidae. 184. Pygothrips, apex of abdomen of female (Hood) Pygothripidae. 185. Thrips, head and anterior part of thorax (Shaw) Thripidae. 14. Male with a stout tubular projection at each side of the sixth abdominal segment. (Megathrips, Bacillothrips, Megalothrips). MEGATHRfPID^ Sixth abdominal segment of male simple, without a tubular pro- jection laterally 15 15. Last abdominal segment greatly elongated, about as long as the remainder of the abdomen and three or four times as long as the head. (Hystrfchothrips, Holurothrips). HYSTRICHOTHRiPIM CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 139 Last abdominal segment much shorter, never greatly lengthened .16 16. Last abdominal segment short, swollen, rounded on the sides; pre- ceding segments very much shorter than wide (Fig. 184). (Pygo- thrips, Austr.) PYGOTHRfPID^ Last abdominal segment tubular, slightly narrowed apically, pre- ceding segments not transversely linear, the ninth usually but little wider than long 17 17. Third joint of antennae with a strong crest-like ring of large sense cones at apex. (Ecacanthothrips, Indomal.; Ormothrips). ecacanthothripim; Sense organs of third joint no more strongly developed than those of the other joints 18 18. Sensory cones of antennae unusually long and acute, each with an accessory cone or a long, slender bristle, the joints which bear the cones much swollen; eyes very much enlarged, contiguous. (Eupatithrips, Sedulothrips) EUPATITHRIPID^ Sensory cones not remarkably developed; eyes much smaller. (Phloeothrips, Trichothrips, Liothrips, Acanthothrips, Zygothrips, and many others) PHLCEOTHRfPID^ LITERATURE ON THYSANOPTERA Bagnall, R. S. Synopsis of .^Eolothripidae. Trans. 2d Congress Ent., 2, pp. 394-397 (1913). The Genus Melanothrips. Ent. Monthly Mag., 60, pp. 9-11. (1924). Classification of Thysanoptera. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist, (10)5, pp. 571— 575 (1930). On the iEolothripid-complex and the Classification of the Sub-order Terebrantia (Thysanoptera). Bull. Soc. Nat. Luxembourg, 41, pp. 115- 118 (1931). Cappelleto, A. I Tisanotteri italiani. Boll. Mus. Zool. Anat. comp. Torino, 44, pp. 335-585, 14 pis., 2 figs. (1934). Costa Lima, A. da. Tisanopteros do Brasil. In vol. 1, Insetos do Brasil. (1939). Doeksen, J. Bijdrage tot de vergelijkende morphologie der Thysanoptera. Meded. Landb. Hoogesch., 45, 114 pp., 24 pis. (1941). Hinds, W. E. Monograph of Thysanoptera of North America. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 26, pp. 79-242 (1902). Hood, J. D. Subfamilies of Thysanoptera. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 28, pp. 53-60 (1915). Keys to Genera and North American Species of Urothripidae. Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc, 24, pp. 314-32L(1929). Studies in Neotropical Thysanoptera. I, II. Rev. Ent., 6, pp. 248-279, 4 figs.; pp. 424-460, 5 figs. (1936). Pts. III-VIII, ibid. (1938). Hood, J. D. and Williams, C. B. Synopsis of Urothripidae. Ann. Ent. Soc. America, 20, pp. 1-9 (1927). Karny, H. Synopsis der Megathripidae. Neue Beitrage zur systematischen Insektenkunde, Berlin, 1, pp. 105-110; 113-118 (1919). 140 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Beitrage zur Malayischen Orthopteren-fauna, III. Thysanoptera. Treu- bia, l,pp. 163-269 (1921). Studies on Indian Thysanoptera. Mem. Dept. Agric. India, 9, pp. 187— 239 (1926). Knechtel, W. K. Thysanoptere din Romania. Studin Monografic. Bulet. Agric, Bucarest, 2-3, pp. 1-235 (1923). Lameere, A. Thysanoptera. In Precis de Zoologie. Rec. Inst. Zool. Torley- Rousseau, 4, pp. 368-380 (1935). Moulton, D. Synopsis, Catalogue and Bibliography of North American Thysanoptera. Bull. Bur. Ent. U. S. Dept. Agric, Tech. Ser. No. 21 (1911). The Thysanoptera of South America. Rev. Ent., Rio de Janeiro, 2, pp. 451-484, 3 figs. (1932). Thysanoptera of South America. Rev. Ent., Rio de Janeiro, 3, pp. 96- 122; 227-262; 385-419; 447-458, 1 pi., 5 figs. (1933). The Genus Franklinella, with Key to Species. Rev. Ent., Rio de Janeiro, 19, pp. 55-114, 43 figs. (1948). Perrier, R. Thysanopteres de la France. Faune de France, 3, pp. 151-156 (1934). Priesner, H. Die Thysanopteren Europas. Four parts. Vienna, Fritz Wagner (1926-28). Thysanoptera. In Tierwelt Mitteleuropas, 4, Lief. 2, pp. VIII, 1-18 (1928). Indomalayische Thysanopteren. Treubia, 11, pp. 357-371, 10 figs. (1930). Thysanopteren aus dem Belgischen Congo. Rev. Zool. Bot. afr., 32, pp. 154-175, 7 figs.; 33, pp. 49-66, 4 figs. (1939). Ramakrishna Ayyar, T. V. and Margabandhu, V. Thysanoptera. Cat. Indian Insects, Pt. 25, 64 pp. (1940). Shumsher Singh. Systematics of Indian Thysanoptera Terebrantia. Indian Journ. Ent., 7, pp. 147-188 (1946). Uzel, H. Monographic der Thysanopteren. 472 pp. Koniggratz (1895). Watson, J. R. Synopsis and Catalogue of North American Thysanoptera. Florida Agric Expt. Sta., Tech. Bull. No. 168, 100 pp. (1923). Zimmerman, E. C. Thysanoptera. Insects of Hawaii, 2, pp. 387-454 (1948). ORDER HEMIPTERA SUBORDER HOMOPTERA (RHYNCHOTA, part) An assemblage of very diverse insects, difficult to define in a general way; usually of moderate or small size, rarely large; in the active forms four wings are present in both sexes; in the scale insects only the males are winged, and they have the hind wings absent; wings usually sloping over the sides of the body; fore wings never modified into a heavy basal and thinner apical portion; mouthparts forming a jointed beak, inserted at hind edge of the head and extending between the CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 141 front coxae, the basal joints very short, rarely the beak is absent in the males. Beak formed of the stylet-shaped mandibles and maxillae which are enclosed in the labium. Cerci wanting. Metamorphosis usually incomplete, sometimes complete in the male or at least with a pupal stage in the male scale insects, rarely so in the female; all the species vegetarian. 1. Beak plainly arising from the base of the head; tarsi, at least of middle and hind legs, three-jointed, antennae very short, with a small terminal bristle; active, free-living species. (AUCHENOR- RHYNCHA) 2 Beak appearing to arise between the front coxae, rarely absent in male coccids and some aphids; tarsi two- or one-jointed; an- tennae usually well developed and thread-like, sometimes atro- phied or absent, without conspicuous terminal bristle; species often incapable of moving, or inactive in the female sex. (STER- NORRHYNCHA). (GULAR6STRIA) 45 Beak arising from the prothorax, sheathed at base by propleural structures; antennae very short. (COLEORRHfNCHA) 63 2. Ocelli (rarely absent) placed between the eyes on the vertex, on the front margin of the head, or on the front; middle coxae short and close together, hind coxae movable; tegulae absent; fore wings with the two anal veins more or less parallel, or the second absent 3 Ocelli (rarely absent) placed beneath or near the eyes, usually in cavities of the cheeks; middle coxae elongate, widely separate, hind coxae immovable, fused externally with the metathorax; tegulae present as a scale between the base of the fore wing and the side angle of the pronotum; fore wings usually with the . two anal veins joining apically to form a Y-vein. (Superfamily FULGOROIDEA. Classification from F. Muir, 1930) 28 3. Three ocelli, placed close together on the disk of the vertex; an- tennae with short basal joint, terminated by a hair-like process which is divided into about five joints; front femora thickened and generally spined beneath, hind legs not fitted for jumping; empodia absent; male almost always with a sound-producing structure on each side at the base of the abdomen; compara- tively large species with entirely membranous wings; nymphs subterranean. Cicadas, "Locusts," Harvest- flies. (Figs. 186, 191, 192, 198). (Cicada (C. septendecim, Periodical Cicada or Seven- teen-year locust), Tibicen, Platypodia) CIGA.DID.fli Two ocelli, rarely absent; empodia large; jumping species 4 4. Pronotum not prolonged over the base of the abdomen 5 Pronotum prolonged backward into a hood or process of variable form, usually much elevated and more or less concealing the 142 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology scutellum and extending over the abdomen, often the prothorax is grotesquely enlarged and ornamented; head vertical, cheeks not dilated, ocelli located between the eyes, antennae inserted between and in front of the eyes. Tree hoppers. MEMBRACIDAE a. Scutellum absent or vestigial, entirely concealed beneath the prono- tum b Scutellum present, usually exposed. (Tropidaspus, Nicomia, Tolania, Lycoderes, Neotrop.; Centrotus, Tricentrus, Palaearc, Indomal.; Tylocentrus, Microcentrus, Am.) CENTROTlN^E 189 Figs. 186-198. Hemiptera 186. Cicada, front view of head (Berlese) Cicadidae. 187. Entylia (Branch) Membracidae. 188. Ceresa (Marlatt) Membracidae. 189. Ceresa, antenna (Marlatt) Membracidae. 190. Ceresa, fore wing (Marlatt) Membracidae. 191. Cicada, hind leg (Kolbe) Cicadidse. 192. Cicada, dorsal view of head (Maxwell-Lefroy) Cicadidae. 193. Leaf hopper, dorsal view of head (Maxwell-Lefroy) Jassidae. 194. Entylia, antenna (Branch) Membracidae. 195. Entylia, front view of head (Branch) Membracidae. 196. Entylia, hind leg (Branch) Membracidae. 197. Gypona, wings (Metcalf) Gyponidae. 198. Cicada, wings. Cicadidae. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 143 b. Front tibiae flattened, foliaceous. (Membracis, Enchenopa, Spongo- phorus, Notocera, Neotrop.; Campylenchia, Leiocyta, Am.). MEMBRACiN^ Anterior tibiae simple, not flattened or leaf-like c c. Hind tarsi very short, much shorter than the front or middle tibiae. (Alchisme, Metcalfiella, Neotrop.; Platycotis, Umbonia, Am.). PLATYCOTIN^ Hind tarsi as long or longer than the front or middle tibiae d d. Third apical cell of corium petiolate e Third apical cell of corium truncate, never petiolate. (Darnis, Rhexia, Aconophora, Hyphinoe, Neotrop.; Stictopelta, Am.). DARNING e. Tegmina coriaceous, opaque; apical veinless border very broad; small flattened beetle-like species. (Tragopa, Stilbophora, Hariola, Neotrop.) TRAGOPlN^ Tegmina entirely or almost entirely membranous, the apical vein- less border narrow. (Ceresa (C. biihalus, Buffalo tree hopper, Figs. 188, 189, 190); Stictocephala, Entylia (Figs. 194, 195, 196), Telamdna, Am.; Smilia, Cyrtolobus, N. Am.; Xantholobus, Nearc.) SMILIlN^E 5. Hind coxae short, conical, not laterally dilated; tibiae cylindrical, smooth, the hind pair usually armed with one or two stout solid spines and with a cluster of spinules at apex; ocelli placed on the vertex, rarely absent; flagellum composed of a large pear- shaped base and a very slender seta; nymphs usually producing a mass of froth in which they live on the stems of various plants. Spittle insects, Frog hoppers. (Superfamily CERCOPOIDEA. Classification from C. F. Baker) 6 Hind coxae transverse, reaching the side margins of the sternum; hind tibiae ridged, with a double series of articulated spines or seriately bristly (hairy in iEthalionidae); cheeks dilated. Leaf hoppers, Sharp shooters. (Superfamily JASSOIDEA) 9 6. Scutellum comparatively small and short (longer than pronotum only in Clastopteridae); hind wings with outer fork of radius always present (sometimes broken at apex), thus forming a supernumerary (first) apical cell, the cubitus apically forked or simple; fore wings with claval veins when present usually dis- tant and without connecting erossvein 7 Scutellum as long as or longer than pronotum, either simply long acuminate, or greatly elevated posteriorly and with a strongly curved, free, apical spine projecting backward; hind wings with outer fork of radius always absent, therefore no supernumerary (first) apical cell; fore wings with both claval veins when pres- ent fused at middle or before, or with a connecting erossvein. 144 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Tube-forming spittle insects. Austr., Indomal., Ethiop. (Figs. 200, 204) MACHjER6TIDjE a. Scutellum not raised apically or with free apical spinous append- age; anterior margin of pronotum strongly extended between eyes; head usually obtuse-angulate; cubitus of hind wing apically forked. (Conmachaerota; Hindola, Enderleinia, Malay; Neuro- machaerota, Ethiop.). (ENDERLEINIlNrf). HINDOLlN^ Scutellum usually greatly raised apically, always with a free apical spinous appendage extended backward; anterior margin of pro- notum but very slightly extended between eyes; head strongly swollen and extended in front of eyes; cubitus of hind wing not forked b b. Form slender, body of scutellum high, arched posteriorly, with strong dorsal furrow; pronotum without lamina tely extended lateral angles, the anterior margin somewhat angulate between eyes. (Machserota) MACFLEROTlN^E Form very thick and stout; body of scutellum nearly flat and with dorsal furrow subobsolete; pronotum with lateral angles pro- duced into high, thin, spreading laminae; anterior margin of pronotum broadly, gently arcuate between eyes. MAXUDEIN,E 7. Pronotal margin between eyes usually straight or slightly arcuate, pronotum commonly strongly enlarged and much broader than the head and with the anterolateral margins usually as long as or longer than the posterolateral; front commonly more or less swollen apically; head with thickened and lobate ridges above the antenna?. (Tomaspis) TOMASPfDID^E Pronotal margin between the eyes usually strongly arcuate or subangulate, the pronotum never greatly enlarged and rarely much wider than head, the anterolateral margins usually much shorter than the posterolateral; front usually swollen basally, if at all; supra-antennal ridges not lobate nor greatly thick- ened 8 8. Fore wings with clavus obliquely truncate at apex; corial appendix, the apical portion of the wing, divided into two very broad sub- equal portions, these at rest infolded at end of the stout and broad body to overlap; fork of radius in hind wings forming a very short first apical cell considerably before apex; cubitus of hind wings not forked apically; corium with three apical cells and two or less subapicals; scutellum longer than pronotum. (Clast6ptera (Fig. 201)) CLASTOPTfiRIDiE Fore wings with the clavus narrowly acute or subacute apically; corial appendix either a narrow continuous membranous mar- gin, or wanting, never bent inward beyond the clavus to overlap CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 145 at end of body; corial venation various but never as in the Clastopteridae. (Cercopa, Ptyelus, Aphrophora, cosmop.; Monecphora, widespr.; Phymatostetha, Indomal.; Cosmoscarta, Palaearc, Indomal. (Figs. 199, 203)) CERC6PID,E Pronotum enlarged, swollen and with a median ridge, almost concealing the head and roundly produced over the base of the acute scutellum. (iEthialion, Neotrop.; Darthula, India). ^THIALI6NID^; Pronotum not thus modified to cover the head, although sometimes with lateral protuberances. (JASSID^, in the broad sense. Clas- sification from C. F. Baker, Philippine Jour. Sci., 1923.) 10 202 199. 200. 201. 202. 203. 204. Figs. 199-204. Hemiptera Spittle insect (Stearns) Cercopidz. Machzrota, profile of head, pronotum and scutellum (Baker) Machzrotidz. Clastoptera, wings (Metcalf) Clastopteridz. Oncometopia, fore wing (Ball) Tettigellidz. Aphrophora, wings (Metcalf) Cercopidz. Machzrota, wings (Baker) Machzrotidz. 10. Upper part of front strongly raised and produced, its posterior portion forming a large part of the superior surface of the head (crown); the true vertex confined to basal portion of crown, the ocelli thus on posterior disk of crown, usually remote from eyes and not visible in facial view 11 Upper part of front confined entirely to face, except sometimes for a narrow border; ocelli visible in facial view 15 11. Lateral sutures of front distinctly continued over the obtuse an- terior margin of the crown to near the position of the ocelli, as in the Cercopidae; antennae between and near the eyes; body 146 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology usually elongate, cylindrical, head often angulate, face large, strongly convex, the cheeks rather long and narrow. (Tettigella, Cicadella, Draeculacephala, Graphocephala, Kolba, Oncometopia {=Procbnia) (Fig. 202), Tylozygus). (PROCONllDsE, TET- TIGONlELLID/E, TETTIGONlIDtf, CICADELLID/E). TETTIGELLIDjE Lateral sutures of front obsolete beyond antennae or beyond an- terior border of crown 12 12. Antennae not far removed from eyes and near but never above level of eyes; lateral margins of front obsolete beyond scrobes 13 Antennae situated entirely above and far removed from eyes; head anteriorly transversely thin and leaf-like, often concave be- neath 14 13. Head acutely angled between crown and face, the face of narrow proportions; lateral sutures of front entering and terminating in antennal scrobes, the face shallowly concave or weakly convex, the cheeks moderately swollen; body long, ovate, usually flattened. (Gypona (Fig. 197), Xerophlcea) GYPONID^ Head obtusely rounded between the strongly declivous crown and face, strongly overhanging the latter, which is deeply concave; lateral sutures of front passing mesad of antennae; face very short, far broader than long PENTHIMilDiE 14. Outlined lower part of front short and broad. THAUMASTOSC6PIDiE Outlined lower portion of front long and narrow; large, brownish species. Principally Indo-Australian. (Ledra, Ledropsis). LEDRIDiE 15. Vertex entirely superior, occupying nearly all or all of crown, the junction with the front occurring on anterior border of crown, the ocelli on or near anterior border of head, rarely, in some Jassidae and Ulopidae, the ocelli indistinguishable 20 Head very short, sometimes very broad, the vertex more or less roundly curved on to face and broadly visible in facial view; ocelli facial and between or above the eyes; basal suture of front, when present, far anterior to base of face; that portion of vertex visible from above usually very short and broad 16 16. Anterior margin of pronotum extending beyond a line through the anterior margin of the eyes 17 Anterior margin of pronotum not extending beyond the anterior margin of the eyes 18 17. Vertex obtusely angulate; anterior margin of pronotum produced from one-third to nearly half its length beyond the anterior margin of the eyes; head and pronotum punctate or with irregular cari- nate lines. (Macropsis, Oncopsis, Holarc.) MACR6PSIDiE CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 147 Vertex broadly rounded; anterior margin of pronotum produced not more than one-fifth or one-sixth its length beyond the anterior margins of the eyes; head and pronotum finely granulate. (Agallia, Agalliopsis) AGALLlIDiE 18. Frontal suture extending beyond the antennal pit nearly to the ocellus; head wider than the pronotum; front wings bare between the veins. (Eurymela, Idiocerus). {1D10CER1D/E). EURYMELID^ Frontal suture not extending beyond the antennal pit 19 19. Head narrower than the pronotum; front wings hirsute between the veins. (Bythoscopus, Stragania) BYTHOSCOPID^E Head wider than pronotum; front wings bare. (Aceratogallia) (see couplet 17) AGALLIID^E, part 20. Basal suture of front distinct and entire, centrally at least, approach- ing more or less closely the anterior margin of vertex; when sub- obsolete above, its position always marked by a fold or carina; in the latter case, the remaining portion of frontal suture is always directed toward the base of front and not toward ocellus; anterior border of vertex usually marked by a sharp margin or carina 21 Basal suture of front usually obsolete, the basal lateral sutures run- ning to and terminating at or near ocelli; vertex usually clearly connate with the front, only in highly specialized groups with a sharp edge or with transverse carinas on anterior border; ocelli on anterior border of head or above it. (Fig. 193) JASSID^E a. Fore wings with well developed veins; head variously formed but not excessively long and narrow b Fore wings leathery, with obliterated venation; head very long and gradually tapering in front, body slender; tibiae weakly spinose; Australian. (Cephalelus (Fig. 212), Paradorydium). CEPHALELIN,E b. Fore wings with veins branching on the disk so that they form a series of preapical cells; ocelli present c Fore wings with veins, often weak at base, not branching on the disk, branching only near apex to form the apical cells; ocelli vestigial or wanting. (Typhlocyba (Fig. 205) (T. australis, Aus- tralian apple leaf-hopper), Dicraneura, Empoa (E. rbsce, Rose leaf-hopper), Empoasca (E. mali, Apple leaf-hopper), Erythro- neura (E. comes, Grape leaf-hopper)). (EUPTERfGIDtf) TYPHLOCYBIN^ c. Ocelli on vertex near margin, or between vertex and front, and remote from eyes. (Acucephalus, Nionia, Strongylocephalus, Xestocephalus) ACUCEPHALINjE Ocelli on margin between vertex and front, usually very close to 148 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology eyes. (Jassus ( = Ccelidia), Chlorotettix, Cicadula, Deltocephalus (Fig. 210), Euscelis, Eutettix, Phlepsius, Platymetopius, Sca- phoideus, Thamnotettix). (CCELlDID/E) JASSIN^ 21. Anterior border of vertex sharply laminately expanded, distinctly overhanging upper part of front; antennae situated far mesad of eyes; ocelli, when distinguishable, lying between extended margin of vertex and basal margin of front in a transversely triangular (rarely linear) ocellar area and very remote from eyes 22 205. 206. 207. 208. 209. 210. 211. 212. 209 210 Figs. 205-212. Hemiptera Typhlocyba, wings. Jassidae. Sogata (Misra) Fulgoridas. Liburnia, wings (Metcalf) Areopodidae. Liburniella, hind leg (Garman) Areopodidae. Cixius (Metcalf) Cixiidae. Deltocephalus (DeLong) Jassidae. Tettigoniella (Ball) Tettigellidae. Cephalelus (Tillyard) Jassidae. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 149 Anterior border of vertex sharply marked (head may be laminately extended between eyes) but never with this margin extended beyond and overhanging upper part of front; usually with clearly marked subtriangular ocellar areas at sides between vertex and front; these areas are commonly occupied by the ocelli, though the latter may occur near by on upper surface of crown, then usually on or outside the carinate or raised lateral margin of vertex; antennae situated close to interior line of eyes 25 22. Pronotum extended between and in front of eyes; vertex very short, transverse and deeply concave 23 Pronotum not abnormally extended between eyes; vertex not very short and widely transverse, the width of the vertex not more than twice the length; ocelli a little nearer to eyes than to median line, or indistinguishable 24 23. Tegmina normally veined; genae narrower than front; front strongly excavate, with high raised margins; clypeus little exserted; ocellar area very broad; hind tibiae with very few small spines and hairs on apical half; sculpture characterized by a deep thimble pitting. (Paropia (= Megophthdlmus) (Figs. 224, 225), Mesoparopia, Malay.). (MEGOPHTHALM1D/E) PAROPlID^E Tegmina with numerous supernumerary veins; genae wider than front; front convex; clypeus long exserted; ocellar area narrow, bounded beneath by a shallow fold; hind tibiae with stout spinose teeth, few in number but distributed along entire length; sculpture characterized by coarse striations and wrinkles. (Stenocotis). STENOCOTID^E 24. Genae longer than broad, flat or concave, outwardly emarginate, normally bordering the lorae to the clypeus; scrobes very shallow and lacking strong supra-antennal ledges (as in Stenocotidae); pronotum with very short lateral margins, converging anteriorly, ocelli distinct. (Koebelea, Nearc). (Fig. 213) . KOEBELEIM; Genae broader than long, strongly convex, not passing lorae (at level of face), their apical margins roundly curved inward to meet the front above the lorae, leaving outer margin of latter fully exposed in facial view; scrobes very deep, under strongly over- hanging and curved supra-antennal ledges; head wider than prothorax; pronotum with very long lateral margins, usually converging posteriorly; ocelli sometimes indistinguishable; all tibiae ridged and feebly spined." (Ulopa (Figs. 214, 215), Mesar- gus, Moonia) ULOPID^ 25. Upper margin of front a little extended beyond margin of vertex and plainly visible in dorsal view at least at sides, the lateral and anterior submarginal carinae of vertex usually distinct, often very strong 26 150 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Upper margin of face not at all extended beyond margin of vertex and not visible in dorsal view, or only a little so just in front of eyes; ocelli on anterolateral border of head or just above or below it; lorae very small and narrow; tegmina usually without ante- apical cells and venation usually indistinct; antennae situated above the eyes in facial view, rarely on upper line of or between eyes, in which case the head is long-produced NIRVANIDiE Figs. 213-229. Hemiptera 213. Koebelea, face (Baker) Koebeleidae. 214. Ulopa, face in frontal view (Baker) Ulopidae. 215. Ulopa, face in lateral view (Baker) Ulopidae. 216. Signoretia, head and pronotum, dorsal view (Baker) Signoretiidae. 217. Signoretia, face (Baker) Signoretiidae. 218. Nirvana, head and pronotum, dorsal view (Baker) Nirvanidae. 219. Nirvana, face (Baker) Nirvanidse. 220. Pythamus, head and pronotum, dorsal view (Baker) Pythamidae. 221. Pythamus, face (Baker) Pythamidae. 222. Stenotortor, head and pronotum, dorsal view (Baker) Nirvanidae. 223. Stenotortor, face (Baker) Nirvanidae. 224. Paropia, face, lateral view (Baker) Paropiidae. 225. Paropia, face, frontal view (Baker) Paropiidae. 226. Euacanthus, head and pronotum, dorsal view (Baker) Euacanthidae. 227. Euacanthus, face (Baker), Euacanthidae. 228. Stenometopius, head and pronotum, dorsal view (Baker) Nirvanidae. 229. Stenometopius, face (Baker) Nirvanidae. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 151 a. Antennaae situated at upper angle of eyes (in facial view) or above this; lateral carinas of vertex more or less distinct; ocelli always visible from above, on upper portion of lateral border, or on anterolateral portion of crown; eyes prominent; posterior border of pronotum more or less distinctly incurved b Antenna? situated at middle of eye margin (in facial view); lateral carina: of vertex wanting; ocelli below anterior border of crown and not visible from above; head (from above) long spatulate, but not thin dorsoventrally; eyes not prominent, deeply set in vertex; pronotum subtruncate posteriorly; tegmina with two sub- apical cells. (Stenometdpius (Figs. 228, 229)). STENOMETOPIIN^E b. Antennae situated in deep transverse, sharp-margined scrobes; face about as broad as long or broader; eyes small; vertex short, half- ovate. (Macroceratogonia, Balbillus, Stenotortor (Figs. 222, 223)). MACROCERATOGONIlN^E Antennae in shallow scrobes of ordinary type; face usually much longer than broad; vertex long; eyes large; tegmina without subapical cells, the veins of corium usually indistinguishable except by transmitted light. (Nirvana (Figs. 218, 219), Kana, Ophiuchus, Pseudonirvana) NIRVANINjE 26. Pronotum very long, strongly produced and outcurved behind, largely covering the scutellum; head with eyes broader than pro- notum; vertex with a very strong, thickened, basal transverse ridge; supra-antennal ledge callously thickened and lobed over frontal margin; clypeus truncate or notched apically and little or not exserted; sides of front not sinuate at scrobes; ocelli in marginal areas and visible from above and below; lorae very small and short. (Signoretia, Indoaustr. (Figs. 216, 217); Preta). SIGNORETlID^E Pronotum not produced behind over the very large scutellum, the hind border truncate or concave; head more or less distinctly narrower than pronotum; vertex without strongly thickened basal ridge; supra-antennal ledge neither strongly callous nor lobed over frontal margin; antennae between the eyes near middle of their inner margins 27 27. Pronotum short, broad, broadly rounded anteriorly, the head but slightly narrower; vertex very broad, nearly twice as broad as long; width of head greater than length of head and pronotum together; ocelli situated a little within anterior margin of crown, but outside the anterolateral carina of vertex, and invisible in facial view. (Euacanthus (Figs. 226, 227); Bundera, India). euacanthim: Pronotum more or less narrowly rounded anteriorly, the head very distinctly narrower, vertex always much less than twice as broad 152 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology as long; width of head always much less than length of head and pronotum together; ocelli in or very near lateral areas, and usually visible both in dorsal and facial views. (Pythamus (Figs. 220, 221), Oniella, Onukia) PYTHAMID^E 28. Flagellum of antennae segmented; hind tibiae without mobile spur; lateral ocelli on the front, the front reaching from eye to eye without lateral ridges dividing off a small area around the eyes; sides of face (lorae) plainly visible in front view and forming a continuous curve with the clypeus. (Tettigometra, Egropa, Hilda, Euphyonartex) TETTIGOMETRIDiE Flagellum of antennae not segmented; lateral ocelli outside the lateral ridges of the front, generally beneath the eyes; sides of 230 Figs. 230-240. Hemiptera 230. Acanalonia, head (Metcalf) Acanaloniidae. 231. Aphelonema, head (Metcalf) Issidae. 232. Otiocerus, wings (Metcalf) Derbidae. 233. Liburniella, antenna (Garman) Areopodidse. 234. Scolops, fore wing (Metcalf) Dictyopharids. 235. Scolops (Garman) Dictyopharidx. 236. Acanalonia (Swezey) Acanaloniidae. 237. Poiocera, wings (Metcalf). 238. Pyrilla (Misra) Lophopidae. 239. Tropiduchid. 240. Ormenis (Swezey) Flatidae. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 153 face (lorae) not visible in front view, or forming an angle with the clypeus 29 29. Second joint of hind tarsi not very small, the apex truncate or emarginate and with a row of small spines; fore wing without costal area, or with only a small one without crossveins 30 Second joint of hind tarsus small or very small, the apex generally rounded or pointed and without spines or with only one at each side; costal area present or absent 38 30. Claval veins not granulate; or if so, the last joint of the labium short, not longer than wide 31 One or both claval veins granulate; apical joint of labium much longer than wide. Abdomen compressed, the sixth to eighth tergites with wax secreting pores; median ocellus usually present. (Meenoplus, Anigrus, Suva, Kermesia) MEENOPLID^E 31. Sixth, seventh and eighth abdominal tergites without wax pores. .32 Sixth, seventh and eighth tergites with wax-secreting pores; oviposi- tor reduced, incomplete. (Kinnara, Eparmene, Prosotropis, CEclfdius, Atopocixius) KINNARIDjE 32. Anal area of hind wings reticulate, with many crossveins; clypeus with lateral carinae; head often greatly prolonged. (Fulgora, Indomal.; Lanternaria, Neotrop.; Amycle, Cyrpoptus, Pyrops). FULGORID^E Anal area of hind wing not reticulate 33 33. Last joint of labium distinctly longer than wide 34 Last joint of labium about as long as wide. (Derbe, Anotia, La- menia, Otiocerus (Fig. 232), Rhotana, Venata, Zoraida). DERBID.E 34. Claval vein entering the apex of the clavus 35 Claval vein not reaching the apex of the clavus, entering com- missure before apex ■. 36 35. Base of abdomen on each side with one or two short processes bear- ing three pits or depressions; body compressed, wing membranes not overlapping. (Achilixia, Malay.; Bebaiotes, Neotrop.). ACHILIXIID,E Base of abdomen without lateral processes; body usually flattened, the wing membranes overlapping. (Achilus, Agandecca, Catonia, Elidoptera, Faventia) ACHiLID^ 36. Hind tibiae with a strong, movable spur at the apex; fore wings without costal area; ovipositor well developed; often brachypterous. (Areopus (Delphax), Liburnia (Fig. 207), Perkinsiella (P. sac- chariada, Sugarcane hopper), Pissonotus, Stenocranus). (DEL- PHACIDM) areopodim; Hind tibiae without apical movable spur 37 37. Head prolonged in front, sometimes greatly so, or if not the front bears two or three carinae, or the tegulae are absent and the claval 154 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology suture obscure; no median ocellus. (Dictyophara, Cladypha, Dichoptera, Orgamara, Orgerius, Scolops (Figs. 234, 235)). DICTYOPHARID^ Head not prolonged in front, or only moderately so, the front with only a median carina, in addition to the lateral margins; tegulae present; median ocellus often present. (Cixius (Fig. 209), Bothri- ocera, Koroana, Myndus, Oliarus) CIXlIDiE 38. Second joint of hind tarsi with a spine on each side; claval vein nearly always extending to and ending in the apex of the clavus 39 Second joint of hind tarsus small, without spines 43 39. Mesonotum with the hind angles marked off by a groove or fine line; fore wings with the costal area absent, or very small and without cross veins, or with cross veins; basal joint of hind tarsi usually long, rarely padded below. (Tropiduchus, Alcestis, Monopsis, Tambinia, Neurometa) TROPIDUCHIDjE Mesonotum with the hind angles not marked off by a groove or line; first joint of hind tarsus usually short or very short 40 40. Fore wings with a crossveined costal area; without granules on the clavus; clypeus nearly always with lateral carinae. (Nogodina). NOGODINID^; Fore wings without a crossveined costal area, or if with such the clavus is granulate or the clypeus is without lateral carinae 41 41. Clavus not granulate; base of costa not strongly curved 42 Fore wings with a crossveined costal area and with the clavus granu- late, or the base of the costa strongly curved. (Flata, Cerynia, Flatoides, Nephesa, Ormenis (Fig. 240), Phantia, Phyma). FLATID^E 42. Fore wings large, held steeply against the sides of the body; head about as wide as thorax; pronotum with hind edge slightly roundly emarginate, sometimes straight; mesonotum large, long; hind tibiae without spines; ovipositor incomplete. (Acanalonia ( = Amphiscepa) (Figs. 230, 236), Chlorochara). (AMPHI- scepidai) acanaloniim; Fore wings generally smaller, in Caliscelinae very short, or very narrow, parchment-like; head usually as wide as thorax or wider; pronotum with hind margin straight, sometimes slightly concave or convex; mesonotum short, not more than twice the length of the pronotum, with a transverse ridge parallel to the pronotal suture dividing it into two parts of differing sculpturing, the anterior covered by the pronotum; hind tibiae spined; claval suture present (Issinae) or absent and fore wings thick, convex, and venation obscured (Hemisphaeriinae). (Bruchomorpha, Aphelo- nema (Fig. 231), Caliscelis, Hemisphaerius, fssus) ISSIDiE CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 155 43. Fore wings wide on apical margin, steeply held against the sides of the body, with a crossveined costal area; clavus long; head as wide or nearly as wide as the thorax; hind trochanter directed downward; first joint of hind tarsi at least moderately short. (Ricania, Armaria, Euricania, Privesa) RICANIIDjE Fore wings not so wide on the apical margin and not held so steeply, or the head is distincdy narrower than the thorax; clavus shorter; hind trochanter directed backward; first joint of hind tarsi at least moderately long 44 44. Front wider than long, the sides angulate; clypeus without lateral carinae and front without longitudinal carinas or with only a very obscure one. (Eurybrachys, Messena, Platybrachys, Thessitus) EURYBRACHID.E Front rarely as wide as long and often without angular margins, nearly always with one or three longitudinal carinae. (Lophops, Indomal.; Pyrilla (Fig. 238), Malay.; Elasmoscelis, Ethiop., In- domal.; Kasserota, Indoaustr.) LOPH6PID.E 45. Tarsi two-jointed, the basal joint sometimes reduced, the outer joint with two claws; wings, when present, four in number, with few veins, at rest usually held in a sloping position over the ab- domen; sutures between body segments distinct; mouthparts usually well developed in both sexes, labium usually long 46 Tarsi one-jointed (in some Monoplebidae and in the male cochineal insect there is an additional minute basal joint) and with a single claw; female stout-bodied, always wingless, often with- out legs so that they rarely move after maturity, remaining sessile on the host plant, rarely without mouthparts; males deli- cate, usually with mesothoracic wings alone developed, which are gauzy and almost veinless and lie flat, overlapping on the abdomen when at rest; antennae of female absent or with as many as eleven joints, of male with ten to twenty-five joints; body of female and nymphal males scale-like, gall-like, or covered with waxy powder, tufts or scales, the sutures between the segments often indistinct. (Superfamily COCCOlDEA) 51 46. Non-jumping insects, legs long and slender; both pairs of wings membranous or opaque whitish; antennae three- to six-jointed . 47 Jumping insects, the femora thickened; antennae long, five- to ten- jointed, usually ten-jointed, the last joint with two fine apical bristles; fore wings somewhat thicker, often more or less leathery; pad between the tarsal claws (empodium) present, bilobed. Jump- ing plant-lice. (PSVLL1D&) CHERMID.E a. Head deeply cleft, with the antennae attached to the truncate an- terior ends on each side of the cleft (Fig. 241); cheeks seldom produced into conical processes; media not dichotomously forked 156 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology (Fig. 243); hind tibiae often without a spur at base. Indomalayan and Neotropical. (Carsidara, Epicarsa, Nesiope, Rhinopsylla). CARSIDARIN,E Head of a different form; if apparently cleft, this is due to the genal cones, which do not bear the antennae b Front not covered by the genae (Fig. 244), which are not produced into conical processes (except Calophya)\ anterior ocellus at the upper extremity of the front c Front covered by the genae (Fig. 253) which are usually produced below into conical processes; front ocellus at the junction of the front and genae d Figs. 241-253. Hemiptera 241. Freysiula, head (Crawford) Chermidae. 242. Trioza, head (Crawford) Chermidae. 243. Carsidara, fore wing (Crawford) Chermidae. 244. Paurocephala, head (Crawford) Chermidae. 245. Trioza (Peterson) Chermidae. 246. Udamosclis, fore wing (Quaintancc and Baker) Aleyrodidae. 247. Aleurodicus, wing (Quaintance and Baker) Aleyrodidae. 248. Aleurocanthus, wing (Quaintance and Baker) Aleyrodidae. 249. Trioza, wings (Patch) Chermidae. 250. Pachypsylla, wings (Patch) Chermidae. 251. Ceriacremum, fore wing (Crawford) Chermidae. 252. Aleyrodes, fore wing (Quaintance and Baker) Aleyrodidae. 253. Pachypsylla, head (Crawford) Chermidae. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 157 c. Vertex flat, horizontal; the front beneath it in the form of a narrow, usually elongate piece that extends from the clypeus to the an- terior ocellus; wings often more or less thickened and spotted. (Aphalara, Aphalaroida, Lfvia, Rhinocola) LIVIiN^ Vertex not horizontal, its surface curved downwards anteriorly; front forming a small sclerite level with the vertex and genae; wings usually membranous. (Calophya, Am.; Leptynoptera, Indomal.; Heteropsylla, Paurocephala, Pauropsylla, widespr.). PAUROPSYLLIN^E d. Fore wing with more than two marginal cells, the radial sector branched or connected to the media by a crossvein near the tip of the wing (Fig. 251). (Ceriacremum, Neotrop.) CERIACREMiN^E Fore wing with only two marginal cells, formed by the furcation of the media and cubitus (Fig. 249), the radial sector not branched and not connected with the media by a crossvein e e. First joint of hind tarsi with two black, claw-like spines at tip; radius, media and cubitus not arising at the same point from the basal vein, the media and cubitus stalked; wings rarely angulate at apex. (Arytaina, Euphalarus, widespr.; Epipsylla, Euphyllura, Pachypsylla (Figs. 250, 253); Chermes (= Psylla) cosmop. (C. pyricola, Pear psylla)). (PSYLLlN/E). CHERMIN,E First joint of hind tarsi simple, without such spines at tip; radius, media and cubitus usually arising at a common point, the media and cubitus not stalked; wings usually angulate at apex. (Cero- psylla, Neotrop.; Megatrioza, widespr.; Paratridza, Neotrop.; Trioza, cosmop.). (Figs. 242, 245, 249) TRIOZlN^ 47. Wings transparent, though sometimes colored, the hind wings smaller than the fore pair; tarsi with the basal joint sometimes much reduced, empodium greatly reduced or absent; body not mealy but sometimes with waxy wool; life cycle very complicated, including agamic and sexual generations, of dissimilar appear- ance. Plant lice, Aphids. (Superfamily APHIDOIDEA) 48 Wings usually opaque, whitish, clouded, or mottled with spots or bands, the two pairs of wings subequal in size; the two tarsal joints subequal, usually a pad-like or spine-like process (em- podium) between the tarsal claws; body of adult more or less mealy with fine, white, powdery wax, body of the scale-like leg- less nymphs not covered with powder, but often with marginal plates of wax. White flies ALEYRODID^E a. Empodium spine-like; fore wings with vein Cu undeveloped. (Aleurodicus (Fig. 247), Dialeurodicus, Leonardius, Paraley- 158 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology rodes, Udamoselis, Neotrop.). (ALEURODIClNAl). UDAMOSELINjE Empodium blade-like; fore wings with vein M undeveloped. (Aleyrodes (Figs. 252, 256, 257), Aleurochiton, Aleurocanthus (Fig. 248), Neomaskiella) ALEYRODiN^ 48. Fore wings with outer part of stigma bounded behind by vein Ri, the radial sector separate (Fig. 259); sexual females oviparous, summer parthenogenetic females viviparous; new-born with an- terior pronotal pleural bristles absent 49 Fore wings with outer part of stigma bounded behind by the fused vein Ri -+- Rs (Figs. 254, 255), both the sexual and agamic females oviparous; first tarsal joint with two bristles; cornicles wanting; newly born with three-jointed antennae and with anterior pro- notal pleural bristle present 50 49. Parthenogenetic and oviparous females and usually males also with functional rostrum, able to suck sap and to defecate; oviparous females producing two or more eggs, rarely one; cornicles rarely absent APHfDIDjE a. New-born individuals with four bristles on basal tarsal joint; head free, not fused with prothorax, adults with vertex margined; labium five-jointed; cornicles broadly conical to pore-like, rarely absent. (Lachnus (Pine aphids), Cinara, Eulachnus, Trama). LACHNIN,E New-born individuals with two bristles on basal joint of tarsus; labium four-jointed; cornicles pore-like to elongate cylindrical, rarely absent; head of adult with vertex not margined b b. Head free; newly born with faceted eyes; hind tibiae of oviparous female thickened. (Aphis (Fig. 258), {A. gossypii, Cotton aphis, A. tndidis, Corn aphis, A. pbmi, Green apple aphis), Rhopalosi- phum, Toxoptera (T. grdminum, Green bug of wheat); Chaito- phorus; Salrusaphis; Callipterus; Pterocomma; Anuraphis (A. ba\eri, Clover aphis, A. maidi-rddicis, Corn root aphis, A. persicce- niger, Black peach aphis); Cryptosiphum; Brachycolus (= Brevi- coryne) Hyalopterus; Liosomaphis; Amphorophora (= Illinoia); Macrosiphum (=Siphonophora) (Fig. 259) (M. solanijblu, Potato aphis); Myzus (M. persicce, Green peach aphis); Phorodon (P. hiimidi, Hop aphis)) APHIDIN^E Head fused with prothorax, the eyes located midway on the head, eyes of new-born with three facets; hind tibiae of oviparous females not thickened c c. Underside of antennae with oval or rounded secondary sensoria; radial sector of fore wings arising at the base of the elongate stigma, cell Ri therefore long; sexual forms small, the female CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 159 laying a number of eggs. (Mindarus (Fig. 260), Anomalaphis, Thelaxes). (MINDARlNsE) THELAXlN^ Antennas with narrow transverse sensoria; radial sector of fore wings arising from the stigma; wing veins much reduced so that the media is usually simple; cornicles usually absent or much reduced; sexual forms usually apterous and of small size; species usually producing galls; wax glands usually present. (Hormaphis, Cerataphis, Hamamelistes) HORMAPHIDINjE 255 Figs. 254-260. Hemiptera 254. Phylloxera, wings (Patch) Phylloxeridae. 255. Adelges, wings (Patch) Adelgidae. 256. Aleyrodes, tarsus (Quaintance) Aleyrodidz. 257. Aleyrodes (Bemis) Aleyrodidae. 258. Aphis (Chittenden) Aphididae. 259. Macrosiphum, wings (Patch) Aphididx. 260. Mindarus, wings (Patch) Aphididae. Parthenogenetic females with functional rostrum, sexual forms greatly reduced and with no mouth parts; oviparous females producing only one egg; cornicles much reduced or absent; wax glands abundantly developed; wing venation usually reduced; antennal sensoria prominent ERIOSOMATID^E Anal tergite of new-born with four bristles, new-born agamic in- dividuals with four bristles on other tergites also; sexual individ- uals produced in the spring. (Forda, Aploneura, Melaphis, Pem- phigella) ' FORDING Anal tergite of new-born with four bristles, the other tergites with bristles forming six rows; sexual individuals produced after mid- summer. (Eriosoma (E. lanigerum, Woolly aphis of apple), Asiphum, Pemphigus, Prociphilus, Schizoneura (S. ulmi, Elm aphis)) ERIOSOMATIN^; 160 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology 50. Wings when at rest held roof-like, vein Cu of fore wing distant from first anal vein; antennae of wingless agamic females three- jointed, of sexual forms four-jointed, of winged forms five-jointed; sexual as well as parthenogenetic females with beak; wingless agamic females secrete a waxy flocculence. Infesting only conifers; formerly known as Chermes AD&LGIDM a. Abdomen with five pairs of spiracles, the first not evident; new- born fundatrix with ring-like dorsal wax glands. (Pineus, Pineodes, Dreyfusia.) PINElNiE Figs. 261-263. Hemiptera 261. Phylloxera, dorsal and ventral views. (Doten) Phylloxeridae. 262. Phylloxera, nymph, ventral view (Simanton) Phylloxeridae. 263. Phoenicococcus, larva (Morrison) Cylindrococcids. Abdomen with six pairs of spiracles, the first not evident; agamic young of two kinds, either (a) delicate summer forms, the first generation usually winged, with short rostrum, moulting four times, and not overwintering, or (b) chitinized, wingless, winter form, with long rostrum, moulting three times, which rest over summer and are active in fall. (Adelges (Fig. 255) ( = Cnapha- lodes), Gilletteella, Sacchiphantes) ADELGI1SLE Wings when at rest laid flat upon the abdomen, veins Cu and 1A fused at base forming a Y-vein; antennas three-jointed; parthe- nogenetic females with beak, sucking but not defecating; sexual forms without beak; wingless agamic females not secreting a waxy flocculence, but in Phylloxera they secrete a waxy powder. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 161 (Phylloxera (P. vastatrix, Grape phylloxera) (Figs. 254, 261, 262), Acanthochermes, Moritziella, Xerophylla (X. carycecaulis, Hickory phylloxeran)) PHYLLOXfiRIDiE 51. Abdominal spiracles present in all stages; adult male usually with compound eyes 52 Abdominal spiracles wanting in all stages; adult male without def- inite compound eyes, i.e. without clusters of facets in hemispherical or other shape 53 52. Larva and all female stages with a distinctly developed flat anal ring bearing pores and six sets; adult male with simple nine- jointed antennae, with a rather conspicuous seta at extreme tip of apical joint; penis sheath of adult male appearing strongly bivalved. (Orthezia, tropicopolitan) ORTHEZlID^ None of the stages with a flat anal ring bearing pores and setae; adult male nearly always with simple ten-jointed antennae, rarely with pectinate antennae or with more than ten joints; penis sheath of adult male mostly entire, or merely cleft at apex, at most with short bilobate tip, in which case the compound eyes are poorly developed. (MARGAR6D1D/E) MONOPHLfiBID^ a. Adult female with tarsi two-jointed (Fig. 278), rarely the legs reduced to a small unsegmented protuberance; disk-like simple pores present; intermediate female legless; halteres of male with four to six long curved apical bristles (Fig. 279). Widespread. (Matsucoccus, Palaearc. (Figs. 279, 282); Stigmacoccus, Neotrop. (Figs. 278, 285, 286); Xylococcus, Nearc.) . . . XYLOCOCCIN^ Adult female with tarsi one-jointed, legs, if reduced, with some seg- mentation; disk-like simple pores wanting b b. Adult female with six to twelve large knobbed bristles surrounding and surpassing the tarsal claw (Fig. 283); antennae contiguous at base; intermediate females legless; male with eyes reduced to a row of facets or even to a single facet. Holarctic. (Stein- gelia, Palaearc; Stomacoccus, Nearc.) STEINGELIlN^E Adult female usually with two bristles on tarsal claw, if more than two the bristles are short and acute; antennae often close together but not contiguous at base; male with well developed compound eyes c c. Adult female with dorsal anus, anal tube relatively well developed and provided with a simple proximal ring; intermediate female with antennae and legs fully developed, anal tube with ring and anal opening distinctly dorsal; male tibiae, tarsi and front femora with bifurcate setae, middorsal area of thorax with an unchitinized area, and abdomen with one or more pairs of fleshy marginal tassels. (Drosicha, widespr.; Icerya, tropicopol. (Figs. 267, 280); Llaveia, Neotrop., Indomal.; Monophlebus, Indomal.; Palaeococcus (Fig. 268), widespr.; Steatococcus) MONOPHLEBlNiE 162 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Adult female with the anal tube, if well developed and with proxi- mal ring, apical in position, if the anal opening is subapical the tube is poorly developed or wanting d d. Adult female usually with disk pores in a band or plate within the thoracic spiracles, if without these the front legs enlarged and fitted for digging; intermediate female legless; male legs without bifurcate bristles, middorsal area of thorax chitinized. (Calli- pappus, Austr.; Kuwania, Palaearc; Margarodes, widespr.). MARGARODIN^; Adult female usually with disk pores or pore plate external to, but never within the thoracic spiracle; intermediate female with antennae and legs usually reduced but still segmented; male tibiae, tarsi and front femora with bifurcate bristles; middorsal area of thorax unchitinized. Principally Neotropical and Australian. (Ccelostomidia, Austr.; Cryptokermes, Neotrop.; Marchalina). CCELOSTOMIDIINjE 53. Abdomen of female and of nymphs terminating in a compound pygidium; anal opening simple; body covered by a secreted thin shield-like scale. Scale insects 54 Abdomen of female and of nymphs not having the posterior seg- ments fused to form a definite pygidium contrasting with the anterior segments; anal orifice often setiferous; body not covered by a thin shield-like scale 55 54. Scale covering constructed around the first moulted skin; pygidium of the covered insect definitely formed of the fused terminal seg- ments contrasting with the anterior segments of the abdomen, pygidium of the first instar larva bearing two long anal setae; legs and six-jointed antennae present during the crawling stage but atrophied after the insect becomes sessile; beak one-jointed. DIASPIDIDjE a. Scale of adult female or second nymphal female more or less elon- gate or sometimes rounded, with exuviae at one end, if nearly circular the exuviae near margin or when central not concentrically superposed; exuvia of first nymphal female with the remains of antennae showing as porrect appendages b Scale of adult and second nymphal female nearly circular, the exuviae central, if elongate the exuviae concentrically superposed, not projecting beyond margin of scale or attached at margin; exuvia of first nymphal female never showing remains of an- tennae. (Aspidiotus, widespr. (Fig. 266) (A. {Comstochaspis) pernicibsus, San Jose scale); Chrysomphalus, widespr.; Targionia, widespr.) ASPIDIOTlN^E b. Scale of female nearly circular, with nipple central or excentric, rarely projecting beyond margin of scale; male scale elongate, with almost parallel sides. (Aulacaspis, widespr. (Figs. 270, 271) CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 163 (A. roses, Rose scale); Diaspis, widespr. (D. bromelice, Pineapple scale; D. piricola, Pear scale); Howardia, widespr.). DIASPIDlNiE Scale of female not circular, but pyriform to linear, at least twice as long as wide, rarely, in certain gall-making species, the scale is reduced to a lining of the gall c Male scale elongate, very unlike the broader female, usually tri- carinate and white or pale-colored d Male scale essentially similar in form and structure to that of the female e 267 Figs. 264-268. Hcmiptera 264. Lecanium, growth stages of female scale. Lecaniidse. 265. Diaspis, female (Howard) Diaspididae. 266. Aspidiotus, male (Howard) Diaspididae. 267. Icerya, tarsus of female (Riley) Monophlebidse. 268. Palaeococcus, hind leg. Monophlebidse. d. Female scale with exuviae small, not forming the greater part of the scale. (Chionaspis, widespr. (Figs. 272, 273, 274) (C. furfura, Scurfy scale; C. pinijblice, Pine leaf scale); Hemichionaspis, widespr., mainly Indomal., Phenacaspis, widespr.; Poliaspis, Ethiop., Indomal.) CHIONASPIDiN^ Female scale elongate (Fig. 269), formed in greater part by the puparium (nymphal exuvia which encloses the adult); secreted part of scale thin. (Adiscofiorinia, Ethiop., Indoaustr.; Fiorinia, Indoaustr. (Fig. 269); Trullifion'nia, Indoaustr.) FIORINIIN^E e. Pygidium usually edged with a continuous series of lobes and wide fringed processes (pectina?), rarely with pointed narrow plates; 164 bulletin: MUSEUM of comparative zoology preanal median group of wax glands often wanting, when pres- ent rarely with more than eight glands; scale white or whitish. . f Pygidium of adult female or of second nymphal stage usually with pointed narrow plates, and pectinae at most with narrow shafts; scale of adult female with second exuvia small, rarely covering half of scale; usually more than eight preanal wax glands; scale 271 ,274 270 272 273 Figs. 269-274. Hemiptera 269. Fiorinia, female, outline of scale. Diaspididae. 270. Aulacaspis, female, outline of scale. Diaspididae. 271. Aulacaspis, male, outline of scale. Diaspididac. 272. Chionaspis, male, outline of scale. Diaspididae. 273. Chionaspis, broad female scale. Diaspididae. 274. Chionaspis, narrow female scale. Diaspididae. dark colored. Oyster-shell scales. (Coccomytilus, widespr.; Lepi- dosaphes {-Mytildspis), widespr. (Fig. 277) (L. bec\i, Citrus purple scale; L. ulmi, Oyster-shell scale); Pinnaspis, Am., In- domal.; Scrupulaspis, Palmare, Indoaustr.) . . LEPIDOSAPHlNiE f. Scale of adult female elongate, often pyriform, sometimes with parallel sides, formed mainly of the large puparium or nymphal exuvia which encloses the adult; male scale not carinate; basal segments of abdomen without lateral projections. (Leucaspis, widespr.; Suturaspis, widespr.) LEUCASPIDINjE Scale of adult female round with small marginal exuviae, or sub- quadrangular with large exuviae, or elongate with terminal exuviae; puparium usually converted into the second exuvia; basal segments of abdomen with lateral projections. (Crypto- parlatoria, Palaearc, Austromal.; Gymnaspis, widespr.; Parlatoria, widespr. (P. blanchardi, Date palm scale); Syngenaspis, widespr. PARLATORIINjE Scale covering not containing the exuviae of the early moults, pygidial segments less completely fused; legs present, even in adult female, tibio-tarsal suture obsolete; antennae of adult female three-jointed; CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 165 beak two-jointed. (Conchaspis, Neotrop., Ceylon (Fig. 276); Fasisuga, Chile; Scutare, Neotrop.) CONCHASPfDID^ 55. Female with posterior end cleft; anus closed by a pair of dorsal plates; larvae also with the anal cleft bounded on each side by a prominent seta-bearing lobe or plate; beak one-jointed; wax glands very rarely paired to resemble the figure 8; body of adult female sometimes greatly convex, bare or encased in waxy or cottony secretion. (Ceroplastes, cosmop. (C. ceriferus, Indian wax scale); Lecanium, cosmop. (Fig. 264) (L. corni, Brown scale; L. hesperidum, Soft brown scale; L. persicce, Peach scale); Lecaniopsis, Neolecanium, Am.; Physokermes, Nearc; Pulvinaria, widespr. (P. vltis, Cottony maple scale); Saissetia, widespr. (5. blecE, Black scale); Toumeyella) LECANIIDjE Anal end of abdomen not medially cleft, if apparently cleft and provided with lobes some of the microscopic wax glands are paired to resemble the figure 8 56 56. End of abdomen more or less narrowed or prolonged into a tubular anal projection; beak two-jointed. Species inhabiting galls, or enclosed in wax 57 Abdomen not narrowed at tip or prolonged into an anal protuber- ance 58 57. Insects enclosed in a mass of resinous cells, each cell with three adjacent openings; adult female legless, body globular or sub- conical, with mouthparts at one end and three tubular processes at the opposite end, one of the projections bearing the anus and the other two the mesothoracic spiracles. Lac insects. (Lacci- fer {— Tachdrdia), Ind.; Tachardiella, widespr.; Tachardina, Ethiop.). (JACHARDlIDAi) LACCIFfcRIM Insects forming galls. Usually on Eucalyptus trees; adult female segmented, top-shaped, with at least one pair of legs, or segmenta- tion obsolete, head and thorax globular, abdomen reduced to a tubercle, and legs and antenna! wanting. Australian. Peg-top Coccids. (Apiomorpha, Ascelis, Cystococcus, Opisthoscelis). {BRACHYSCtUDAl) APIOMORPHID^ 58. Wax glands distributed largely in pairs resembling the figure 8, generally arranged in rows; beak one-jointed; anal ring pro- vided with setae; legs of adult female vestigial or wanting. (Asterolecanium, Cerococcus (Fig. 281), Lecaniodiaspis, widespr.; Olliffia, Austr.) , ASTEROLECANIID^E Wax glands not seriately arranged in pairs resembling the fig- ure 8 59 59. Antennae of adult female eleven-jointed; male eyes consisting of eight units arranged in a circle; anal ring distinct and provided with six prominent anal ring setae, no anal lobes or anal setae. (Phenacoleachia, Austr.) PHENACOLEACHlIDvE 166 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Antennae of adult female with at most nine joints, often reduced or wanting; male eyes consisting of fewer parts, not arranged in a circle 60 60. Adult female and all nymphs with no anal ring and corresponding setae 61 Adult female and intermediate nymphs with anal ring developed, with or without setae, first stage nymphs with anal ring setae ... 62 61. Adult female with all legs present and subequal in length, their antennae normally seven-jointed, and body deep carmine red. Cochineal insects. (Coccus, widespr. (orig. Am.); Epicoccus, Austr.) COCCIDiE 283 284 286 Figs. 275-286. Hemiptera 275. 276. 277. 278. 279. 280. 281. 282. 283. 284. 285. 286. Lepidosaphes, pygidium of adult female (Green) Diaspididae. Conchaspis, pygidium of adult female (Green) Conchaspididae. Lepidosaphes, pygidium of adult female (Quayle) Diaspididae. Stigmacoccus, leg of adult female (Morrison) Monophlebidae. Matsucoccus, halter of male (Morrison) Monophlebidae. Icerya, antenna of female (Riley) Monophlebidae. Cerococcus, pygidium of adult female (Green) Asterolecaniidae. Matsucoccus, male, dorsal view of head (Morrison) Monophlebidae. Steingelia, tip of tarsus of female (Morrison) Monophlebidae. Rhizococcus, tip of tibia and tarsus (Packard) Diaspididae. Stigmacoccus, simple disk pore (Morrison) Monophlebidae. Stigmacoccus, trilobate disk pore (Morrison) Monophlebidae. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 167 Adult female with some or all legs wanting, or when all legs present the hind pair are two or three times as long as the others; an- tenna?, if present, with less than seven joints, often vestigial or wanting. Southern hemisphere. (Apiococcus, Neotrop.; Cylin- drococcus, Austr.; Halimococcus, Ethiop.; Ourococcus, Austr.). (IDIOC6CCID/E) CYLINDROC6CCID.E 62. Anal ring and distinct anal ring seta? present in young and adult females, anal lobes present. (Antonia, Eriococcus, Phenacoccus, widespr.; Gossyparia, Holarc, Austr. (G. spuria, Elm bark louse); Pseudococcus {=Dactylbpius), cosmop. Mealy bugs; Trionymus, Holarc). (PSEUDOC6CC1D/E, DACTYLOPllNAl). ERIOCOCCID^ Adult female rarely with anal ring, female nymphs with anal ring and anal ring setae, anal lobes not formed; adult female berry- like or gall-like, living on oaks. (Kermes (=Kermococcus), Holarc, Austr.). (HEMICOCClN/E) KERMESID.E 63. Head freely articulated with the thorax; fore wings membranous, with veins and cross veins that enclose numerous cells. Terrestrial. (Peloridium, Neotrop.; Xenophyes, Hemiodcecus, Austr.). PELORIDIID^E Head more or less completely fused with the thorax, not movable; upper wings very thick, covering the whole abdomen; scutellum short and broad; aquatic. (Plea, widespr.) PLEIDiE SUBORDER HETEROPTERA (HEMIPTERA, RHYNCHdTA, part) Terrestrial or aquatic species ranging from minute to large size; usually more or less flattened or cylindrical; feeding on the juices of plants or animals. Head free, bearing a sucking, inflexed, jointed beak which is usually inserted toward the front end of the head; antennae with few joints, those of the terrestrial species usually long; in the aquatic forms very short. Prothorax large, free; mesothorax and meta- thorax firmly united; scutellum very large. Wings overlapping on the abdomen, the fore pair (hemelytra) tough at the base and mem- branous apically, the hind pair with large anal field, the venation much reduced and irregular, wings sometimes reduced or absent; legs of variable form, tarsi usually three-jointed, rarely reduced to two, or one joint. Abdomen with ten visible segments, frequently the sternites are larger than the tergites; no cerci. Metamorphosis incomplete. True Bugs. 1. Antennae as long as or longer than the head, usually free, rarely (Phymatidae) fitting in a groove under the sides of the protho- rax, if the antennae are slightly shorter than the head the eyes and ocelli are absent; tarsal claws with or without arolia. (GEO- C6RIS/E). GYMNOCERATA 2 168 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Antennae shorter than the head, usually (except Ochteridz) hidden in cavities beneath the eyes; meso- and metasternum composite, metasternal gland openings absent; tarsal claws without arolia; aquatic or hygrophilous species. (HYDROC6RIS/E). CRYPTO- CERATA 49 2. Eyes and generally also the ocelli present (eyes small in Aepophilus, Couplet 13) 3 Both eyes and ocelli wanting; scutellum not formed 58 3. Claws apical, the last tarsal joint with entire tip 4 Fig. 287. Hcmiptera Piesma, developmental stages. Five larval instars, 1-5. (Barber) Piesmids. Claws of at least front tarsi distinctly anteapical, the apex of the last tarsal joint more or less cleft; hind coxae distant; upper wings of uniform texture, the clavus, corium and membrane confluent; underside of body with silvery, velvety pubescence; aquatic, surface-living. Water striders, Jesus-bugs. (Superfamily GERR6IDEA) 48 4. Head shorter than thorax including the scutellum; body rarely very narrow 5 Body linear; head horizontal, as long as the entire thorax and widened toward the apex; legs slender; upper wings with corium and membrane not separate; wings often absent; antennae four- jointed. Marsh-treaders. (Hydrometra ( = Limnobates), cosmop.) (Figs. 288, 289). (LIMNOBATIDtf) HYDROMETRIM: 5. Antennae four-jointed, disregarding minute intermediate ring-joints or antenniferous tubercles on the head which are sometimes present; head not shield-like, the antennae visible from above .6 Antennae with five principal joints 42 6. Upper wings more or less lace-like in appearance, the small reticu- late cells usually with membranous center; body with reticulate sculpturing; tarsi two-jointed; small, more or less flattened CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 169 bugs, less than five mm. in length. Lace-bugs. (Superfamily TINGOIDEA) 7 Upper wings and body not so reticulate; ocelli usually present 8 7. Middle lobe of head (tylus) not extending forward as much as the side lobes (juga), the head appearing bifid in front; ocelli pres- ent; upper wings with the membrane not reticulate but the remainder reticulately punctate; pronotum not covering the scutellum. (Piesma (Fig. 287)) Pl£SMID,E Side lobes of head not prominent; ocelli absent; upper wings en- tirely reticulate; pronotum with an angular process extending over the scutellum and often with an anterior hood more or less covering the head. (Phatnoma, Cantacader, widespr.; Acalypta, Corythucha (Fig. 291), Galeatus, palaearc, Indomal.; Gargaphia, Gelch6ssa). (TlNGlDIDtf, TINGlTID/E) TfNGID^ 8. Tarsal claws devoid of basal pads (arolia), if very rarely the arolia are present (Miridae, Reduvioidea) the meso- and metasternum are composite or the front legs are raptorial 9 Tarsal claws always provided with arolia; proboscis generally four- jointed; meso- and metasternum simple 33 9. Antennae whip-like, the basal two joints very short, last two joints long and very slender, pilose, the third joint thickened at the base; ocelli present; proboscis three-jointed; tarsi three-jointed; veins of upper wings forming cells; small or minute species. (Superfamily DIPSOCOROlDEA) 10 Third antennal joint not thickened at base, the second joint often longer than the third or equal to it, rarely shorter 11 10. Head more or less extended horizontally, or slightly bent down; pro- boscis long; eyes small; front coxal cavities not prominent. (Cera- tocombus, Crescentius, Ind.). (CERATOC6MBID/E, CRYP- TO STEMM AT ID A£) DIPSOC6RIDiE Head transverse, inflexed between the prominent front coxae; costa of fore wings not fractured. (Hypselosoma ( — Glyptocombus)). SCHIZOPTfiRID^ 11. Meso- and metasternum composite, formed of more than one piece, very rarely the sutures obsolete, in which case the clypeus is triangulate (Cimicidae); cuneus of the fully winged forms more or less distinct; hind coxae hinged (except in a few Miridae) (Superfamily CIMICOIDEA) 12 Meso- and metasternum simple, formed of a single piece; hind coxae rotating with a ball and" socket joint (except in Saldidae) 19 12. Proboscis three-jointed; upper wings, when developed, with an em- bolium; when the wings are vestigial no ocelli are present. (Com- pare also Microphysidae, couplet 18, some of which have three- jointed proboscis, but no embolium) 13 Proboscis four-jointed , , • • , 16 170 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology 13. Metapleurae without glands; body not broadly oval and thorax not flattened; occurring under stones along Atlantic coast of Europe. (Aepophilus) AEPOPHfLID^E Metapleurae with glands 14 14. Wings vestigial; clypeus triangular, broader apically; ocelli absent; parasitic on man, bats and birds. Bedbug family. (Cimex (C. lectularius, Bedbug) (Figs. 292, 295), Primicimex, Nearc, Haematosiphon). (ACANTHlID/E of authors, CL1NOC6R1- DAE) CIMfCIDiE V _£ Figs. 288-296. Hemiptera 288. Hydrometra (Miall) Hydrometridae. 289. Hydrometra, profile of anterior portion of body (Hungerford) Hydrometridae. 290. Isometopus (Heidemann) Isometopidae. 291. Corythucha Tingidae. 292. Cimex, tip of tibia and tarsus (Eysell) Cimicidae. 293. Lygus (MacGregor) Miridae. 294. Triphleps (MacGregor) Anthocoridae. 295. Cimex (Patton and Cragg) Cimicidae. 296. Halticus (Distant) Miridae. Wings usually well developed; sides of clypeus parallel or sub- parallel; ocelli present; proboscis three-jointed 15 15. Membrane of fore wings with many distinct veins; antennae long and thin; proboscis long; gland opening of metathorax small; legs long and thin, similar; eyes large and bulging; moderately large species. (Velocipeda, Indomal.) VELOCIPEDHXE Membrane with few veins, legs not lengthened; small species. Minute pirate-bugs. (Anthocoris, Triphleps, cosmop. (T. insidib- sus, Predatory flower-bug)). (Fig. 294) ANTHOCORID^ CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 171 16. Ocelli of both sexes absent; tarsi three-jointed (exceptionally two- jointed in a few Miridae) 17 Ocelli present; membrane of upper wings with one or two small basal cells 18 17. Proboscis with basal joint scarcely longer than wide, not extending backward beyond middle of eyes; membrane of upper wings with a single large quadrangular cell. (Hesperophylum, Termatophy- lum) TERMATOPHYLID.E Proboscis with basal joint longer than broad, usually reaching beyond hind margin of head; membrane with two, sometimes one, small cells near base, rarely with irregular free veins. Leaf-bugs, Plant- bugs. (Halticus (Fig. 296), Psallus, Calocoris, Poecilocapsus, Irbisia, widespr.; Lygus (Fig. 293), (L. pratensis, Tarnished plant-bug), Miris, cosmop.; Capsus, Camptobrochis, Palaearc, In- domal.). (CAPS1D/E) MIRID^ 1 a. Tarsi with a pair of arolia present b Arolia absent, at most two thin bristly hairs present between the tarsal claws h b. Arolia well separated at base, or arising next to the base of the claws c Arolia closely approximate at base, usually narrow and ribbon-like . . f c. Pronotum anteriorly with a transverse collar, separated by an im- pressed groove, at least at the sides d Pronotum simple, without a collar anteriorly e d. Lorae distinctly separated from the genae as a linear sclerite; last tarsal joint not widened; tibiae finely spinulose DICYPHIN^, part Lorae and genae confluent; last tarsal joint swollen; tibiae without spinules BRYOCORIN^, part e. Lorae distinctly separated from the genae; tibiae usually spinose. PHYLINLE, part Lorae and genae confluent; last tarsal joint swollen. BRYOCORIN^, part f. Arolia bowed outward, then converging at tips . . ORTHOTYLlNiE Arolia divergent from base to tip g g. Tarsal claws sharply bent near the base; arolia broadened. DICYPHlNiE, part Tarsal claws more or less arcuate or bent at the middle or beyond, MIRING h. Prothorax with a transverse impression anteriorly, at least at the sides, defining a collar i Prothorax simple PHYLINjE, part 1 A number of rather ill-defined subfamilies are generally recognized. 172 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology i. Tarsal claws stout, usually sharply curved or bent, with a tooth or internal swelling at the base j Tarsal claws simple, slender; usually porrect at tips. . . CYLAPIN7E j. Pronotum with a distinct, complete collar k Pronotum with a collar indicated only at the sides. CLIVINEMIN^ k. Fore wings in great part hyaline DICYPHlN^E, part Fore wings not hyaline; tarsal claws often with two bristles between them at base DER^OCORlN^E 18. Tarsi two-jointed; proboscis normally four-jointed, the third joint very small, or three-jointed. (Mallochiola, Cyrtosternum, Pachy- tarsus, Indomal.) MICROPHYSIDjE Tarsi three-jointed. (Corticoris, Diphleps, Isometopus, Palaearc, In- domal. (Fig. 290), Myiomma) ISOMETOPID^ 19. Front legs not raptorial; prosternum without medial stridulation groove; head rarely cylindrical 20 Front legs more or less raptorial; prosternum usually with a median transversely striated or granulated stridulation groove in front of the front coxae; pronotum with a transverse groove; head cylindrical; proboscis three-jointed, fitted for piercing, rarely with an extra very short basal joint, the first joint stout and usually curved. (Superfamily REDUVIOIDEA) 28 20. Ocelli absent; proboscis three-jointed or apparently so when the basal joint is minute; body flat, adapted for living under bark. (Superfamily ARADOIDEA) 21 Ocelli present, when rarely absent the proboscis is four-jointed and the head is not apically widened 23 21. Proboscis arising before the end of the head and lying in a groove between the cheeks 22 Proboscis terminal, not lying in a ventral groove. (Isodermus, Austr., Neotrop.; Procympiutus, Austr.) ISODERMIDvE 22. Head not wide behind the eyes, which are prominent; proboscis longer than the head; trochanters very short, fusing with the femora; abdominal spiracles placed near the base of the segments. (Aradus, Brachyrhynchus, cosmop.; Eumendtes, Indomal. (Fig. 297), Carventus, Neotrop., Indoaustr.) ARADID.& Posterior part of head wide, enclosing the eyes, often spinose; proboscis rarely longer than the head; trochanters distinct; ab- dominal spiracles remote from the base of the segments. (Aneurus, Mezira, Neuroctenus). (MEZlRlD/E) DYSODlIDyE 23. Membrane of upper wings destitute of veins, more or less confluent with the membranous clavus 26 Membrane furnished with four or five long closed cells, the clavus more or less distinct 24 24. Abdominal spiracles on the sternites 25 CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 173 Abdominal spiracles on the tergites. (Leptopus, Valleriola, Erianotus, Old World) LEPTOP6DID^E 25. Eyes contiguous with the pronotum. Shore bugs. (Salda, cosmop.; Saldula, Pentacora (Fig. 299)). (ACANTHllDAz of some au- thors) SALDID.E Eyes not reaching the margin of the pronotum. (Leotichus, Ind.). LEOTICHID^E Figs. 297-304. Hemiptera 297. Aradus (Howard) Aradidae. 298. Pentatomid bug, wings (Handlirsch) Pentatomidae. 299. Pentacora (Torre Bueno) Saldidae. 300. Corizus (Hambleton) Corizidae. 301. Henicocephalus (Maxwell-Lefroy) Henicocephalidse. 302. Triatoma (Chagas) Reduviidae. 303. Reduvius, tip of tibia and tarsus (Eysell) Reduviidae. 304. Triatoma, wing (Patton and Cragg). Em., embolium; CI., C, corium; Mb., membranaceous area. Reduviidae. 26. Ocelli approximated; semiaquatic bugs 27 Ocelli widely separated; flattened, oblong-oval bugs with large por- rect head. (Fig. 310). (Xylastodoris (Royal-palm bug)). (THAU- MASTOC6R1DAZ) THAUMASTOTHERIIDjE 27. Antennae long and slender; body narrow; tarsi three-jointed, the basal joint minute; corium submembranaceous with elevated veins. (Mesovelia, widespr.) MESOVELlIDiE Basal two joints of antennae thicker than the others; body robust, not over 2.5 mm. in length; tarsi two-jointed; head and thorax grooved beneath; body densely clothed with velvety pile. (Mer- 174 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology ragata; Hebrus, widespr.) (N/EOGEID/E). (See couplet 42). HEBRIDjE, part 28. Pronotum divided into three lobes; head constricted at the base and behind the eyes, swollen between; upper wings wholly mem- branous, with longitudinal veins and a few crossveins; front tibiae swollen; front tarsi one-jointed, hind tarsi two-jointed; minute, delicate species. (Henicocephalus, cosmop. (Fig. 301), Systel- loderes). (EN1COCEPHALID/E) HENICOCEPHALIM; Pronotum simple, often large and broad, or long and narrow; head not constricted at the base behind the eyes 29 29. Antennae elbowed, slender, filiform or often very thin apically . 30 Antennae short, with the last joint swollen or enlarged; membrane with the veins joined, frequently forked and uniting; tarsi two- jointed; front legs very stout, raptorial, the front femora greatly thickened. (Phymata (Ambush-bug); Macrocephalus; Amblythy- reus, Indomal.; Carcinocoris, Indoaustr.). (MACROCEPHAL- IDM) PHYMATID^ a. Scutellum large; rounded apically; sides of head and propleura not grooved for the reception of the antennae. MACROCEPHALINjE Scutellum small, triangular; sides of head and propleura grooved for the reception of the antennae PHYMATlN/E 30. Prosternum with a cross-striated median stridulation groove; pro- boscis three-jointed 31 Prosternum without a stridulation groove; proboscis usually four- jointed, rarely three-jointed 32 31. Front coxae short; rather robust species, the body not linear; ocelli usually present; front legs raptorial, but not greatly modified. Assassin bugs. (Acanthaspis, Ethiop., Indomal.; Apiomerus (A. crdssipes, Bee assassin); Arilus {A. cristatus, Wheelbug); Mela- nolestes (M. picipes, Kissing-bug); Reduvius, Palaearc, Ethiop., Indoaustr. (Fig. 303); Sinea, Holarc; Triatoma ( = Conorhinus) widespr. (T. sanguisuga, Big bedbug) (Figs. 302, 304); On- cocephalus, Harpactor, Pirates, widespr.) REDUVlID-flL a. Membrane with three simple veins; hamus absent; body extremely flattened ELASMOCORIN^E Membrane with one or more closed cells b b. Base of abdomen produced towards meta-sternum to form a trichome; last two antennal segments each inserted before apex of preceding segment; hamus absent HOLOPTILIN^ Base of abdomen without a trichome; last two antennal segments inserted at apices of preceding segments c c. Under surface of head moderately to strongly produced on either CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 175 side throughout its length, forming a more or less distinct rostral groove d Under surface of head without a buccal groove e d. Ocelli absent; apical three antennal segments usually slender; body usually clothed with a dense tomentum. TRIBELOCEPHALiN^E Ocelli present; apical three antennal segments not long and slender; body without a dense vestiture of apically curved hairs. PHIMOPHORIN^ e. Anterior coxae elongated, usually at least four times longer than wide and usually extending well beyond apex of head; long slender insects with hemelytra almost entirely membranous; front legs raptorial BACTRODlN^E Anterior coxae shorter, usually less than twice as long as broad and not extending beyond apex of head; usually broader insects with well differentiated clavus, corium, and membrane and without greatly modified front legs f f . Pronotum constricted behind the middle g Pronotum constricted at or near the middle h g. Ocelli present; front and middle tibiae not curved apically, provided with spongy fossae at their apices PIRATING Ocelli absent; front tibiae curved apically and produced beyond in- sertion of tarsi as a stout spine; spongy fossae absent. VESCIlN^E h. Ocelli always absent i Ocelli present except in rare brachypterous forms j i. Second rostral segment swollen at base; membrane with at least two closed cells SAIClNiE Second rostral segment not swollen at base; membrane with only a single large cell CHRYXIN^E j. Cubitus branching to form an additional four- to six-angled cell between corium and membrane k Cubitus simple, not forming such an extra cell m k. Cubital cell usually hexagonal; first antennal segment stout, porrect; abdomen with only two scent glands STENOPODlN^ Cubital cell usually quadrangular; first antennal segment usually relatively slender; abdomen with three scent glands 1 1. First antennal segment short, but little longer than head; ocelli often farther apart than eyes; claws simple APIOMERlNTE First antennal segment usually longer than head; ocelli usually closer together than eyes; claws dentate or appendiculate. HARPACTOCORIN^: m. Second antennal segment subdivided into from eight to thirty pseudo-segments; eyes located posteriorly, the ocelli placed be- tween them MICROTOMIN^; 176 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Second antennal segment not subdivided; ocelli located behind the compound eyes n n. Head rarely transversely constricted behind the eyes, the ocelli usually located on oblique elevations at postero-lateral angles of the long, cylindrical head; dorsal abdominal scent gland openings absent TRIATOMiN^E Head transversely constricted behind the eyes; abdominal scent glands present o o. Eyes strongly pedunculate CETHERINjE Eyes not stalked or pedunculate p p. Antennae inserted anteriorly or, more commonly, laterally but not on long, anteriorly projecting tubercles REDUVIlNiE Antennae inserted on prominent, anteriorly projecting tubercles at front of head q q. Front tarsi two-segmented; middle and hind tarsi three-segmented. SALYAVATIN^E All tarsi three-segmented SPHjERIDOPlNiE Front coxae greatly elongated; body greatly elongated, the middle and hind legs long and thin, the front legs highly raptorial; ocelli absent. Thread-legged bugs. (Barce, Ploiaria ( = £mesa), widespr.; Myiophanes, Palaearc, Indoaustr.; Stenolaemus, Gardena, widespr.). (EMESlDrf.) PLOIARlIDiE 32. Legs slender, the front pair strongly raptorial; tarsi three-jointed; membrane of upper wings with more or less distinctly branched veins, or with two or three longitudinal cells emitting radiating veins. Damsel-bugs. (Nabis ( = Coriscus, = Reduviolus), cos- mop., Pagasa) NABID^ a. Metathoracic scent gland ostioles not visible between middle and hind coxae PACHYNOMlN^E Metathoracic scent gland ostioles distinct with well developed, trans- verse canals between middle and hind coxae b b. Abdomen narrowed at base; ovipositor reduced; hamus absent. ARACHNOCORIN^E Abdomen broad at base; ovipositor well developed, the seventh sternite cleft; hamus present c c. Front coxal cavities closed behind GORPlNiE Front coxal cavities open behind d d. Pronotal collar reduced; clavus narrowed posteriorly, the commissure shorter than scutellum PROSTEMMINjE Pronotal collar broad and distinct; clavus broadened posteriorly, the commissure longer than scutellum NABlN.dE Legs short, tarsi two-jointed; membrane with four free veins. (Joppeicus, Palaearc.) JOPPEfCIDiE CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 177 33. Membrane of upper wings with many longitudinal veins which often unite; antennae inserted well up on the sides of the head; ocelli present. (Superfamily COREOIDEA) 34 Membrane usually with a few veins, if many branching veins are present the ocelli are absent. (Superfamily LYG^EOIDEA, et al.) 36 34. Fourth dorsal segment of the abdomen constricted medially; gland openings of the metathorax usually obsolete, if rarely visible, placed behind the hind coxal cavities and emitting two divergent grooves. (Corizus, cosmop. (Fig. 300); Harmostes; Serinetha, Ethiop., Indomal.) CORIZIM1 Basal margin of fourth and fifth dorsal segments of the abdomen usually sinuate in parallel manner; gland openings of meta- thorax almost always distinct 35 35. Head much narrower and shorter than the prothorax, cheeks usu- ally reaching behind the insertion of the antennae; exterior mar- gin of hind coxal cavities nearly parallel with axis of the body. (Anasa (Figs. 306, 307, 311, 312) (A. tristis, Squash-bug); Lepto- glossus, widespr. (Fig. 305) (L. phyllopus, leaf-footed bug); Acanthocoris, Stenocephalus, widespr.; Homoeocerus, Ethiop., Palaearc, Indomal.; Mictis, widespr.; Anoplocnemis, Ethiop., In- domal.) coreim; Head nearly as broad and long as the prothorax, wider than the front margin of the pronotum; cheeks scarcely extending behind the base of the antennae; exterior margin of the hind coxal cavities more or less transverse. (Alydus, Leptocorisa (L. trivittata, Box- elder bug), widespr.; Curu, Neotrop., Indomal.; Protenor, Sta- chyocnemus). {COR1SC1DA1) ALtDID^E 36. Ocelli present 37 Ocelli absent 41 37. Wing membrane without veins 38 Wing membrane with veins 39 38. Wings when present long and narrow, without distinct veins; slen- der species with long, thin antennae and abdomen narrowed at base. Indoaustr. and Neotrop. (Colobathristes, Peruda, Phaena- cantha, Malcus) COLOBATHRfSTID^ Fore wings with a number of closed cells basally, but without veins on the membrane. (Macrovelia, Nearc.) . . . . MACRO VELlID^E 39. Antennae not elbowed; head not constricted in front of the eyes. . .40 Antennae elbowed, the first joint long and clubbed, the last joint spindle-shaped; head constricted in front of the eyes; scutellum small; femora clubbed; body and legs extremely slender. Stilt bugs. (Jalysus, widespr.; Neides, Metacanthus, Palaearc, In- domal.). (BER^TIDAE) NEfDID^ 178 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology 40. Veins of membrane usually four or five in number and not forming anteapical cells. (Geocoris, Nysius, cosmop. (False chinch-bug); Graptostethus, Palaearc, Ethiop., Indomal.; Oncopeltus, Lygaeus, Ligyrocoris (Fig. 313), Lygaeosoma, widespr.; Blissus (B. leucop- terus, Chinch-bug (Fig. 308))). (GEOC6RID&, MYOD6CHI- DJE) LYGiEID^E Figs. 305-313. Hemiptcra 305, 306 307 308, 309. 310 Leptoglossus (Chittenden) Coreidae. Anasa, wings (Tower) Coreidae. Anasa, leg (Tower) Coreidae. Blissus (Webster) Lygaeidae. Dysdercus (Barber) Pyrrhocoridae. Xylastodoris (Barber) Thaumastocoridae. 311. Anasa, antenna (Tower) Coreidae. 312. Anasa, lateral view of prothorax and head (Hyatt and Arms) Coreidae. 313. Ligyrocoris (Barber) Lygaeidae. Veins of membrane four in number, arising distinctly from the corium, forming three large preapical cells and thence branching. (Hyocephalus, Austr.) HYOCEPHALlM: 41. Membrane of upper wings with two large basal cells which emit seven or eight branching veins; stout bugs of moderate size. (Dysdercus, widespr. (Fig. 309) (Cotton stainers); Physopelta, widespr.; Euryophthalmus; Pyrrhocoris, Palmare, Ind.; Ectatops, Antilochus, Ethiop., Indoaustr.) PYRRHOCORIDAE CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 175 Membrane with few veins forming one or two basal cells. (See couplet 17) MiRID^E, part 42. Upper wings with the clavus membranous and confluent with the membrane which is devoid of veins; head and thorax grooved beneath; antennae with the two basal joints stouter than the others; tarsi two-jointed; small, semiaquatic bugs. (See couplet 27). (Hebrus ( =Naogeus), widespr.) HEBRIDjE Upper wings with the clavus noticeably heavier than the membrane; antennae with the first joint thickened, the second joint slender; head more or less expanded, the side margins acute in front of the eyes and thickened above the base of the antennae; ocelli present; scutellum large or very large; terrestrial. (Super-family SCUTELLEROIDEA.) {PENT AT OMO IDE A) 43 43. Scutellum excessively large, U-shaped and convex, covering the greater part of the abdomen; opaque part of the corium much narrowed toward the apex 44 Scutellum nearly always narrowed behind, more or less triangular; opaque part of the corium subtriangular, broad apically. (If the scutellum is entirely hidden, not extending beyond metathorax, cf. Yang, 1935, the imperfectly known TAHITOC6RIDjE) .47 44. Tibiae not armed with strong spines 45 Tibiae with two or more rows of distinct spines. Negro-bugs. (Corimelaena { = Thyre6coris)). (THYREOC6RIDA1). CORIMEL^NID^ 45. Fore wings about twice as long as the abdomen, folded at the middle and at rest tucked under the scutellum; tarsi two-jointed. (Brachyplatys, Ethiop., Indoaustr.; Coptosoma, Old World; Plataspis, Palaearc). (COPTOSOMIDA1, PLATASPIDA1). PLATASPIDID^ Fore wings of normal length, not folded; tarsi nearly always three- jointed 46 46. Sides of the prothorax without a strong tooth or lobe in front of the humeral angles and another on the front angles; hind wings with a heavy, abrupt, spur-like vein (hamus). Shield-back bugs. (Eurygaster, Holarc; Homaemus, widespr.; Scutellera, Chryso- coris, Pcecilocoris, Indomal.) SCUTELLfiRID^E Sides of the thorax with a prominent tooth or lobe in front of both the humeral and the front angles; eyes protuberant; hind wings with no hamus. (Arctocoris, Palaearc; Oncozygia, Podops, widespr.). (GRAPHOSOMATIDA1) PODOPIDjE 47. Tibiae strongly spinose, front legs fossorial; veins of the membrane radiating from the base. (Aethus, widespr.; Geotomus, Cydnus, cosmop.; Brachypelta, Palaearc, Ethiop., Indoaustr.; Cyrtomenus, Pangaeus) CYDNID^ Tibiae unarmed, or at most with weak spines, front legs not fos- 180 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology sorial; veins of membrane extending from a vein which arises near the inner basal angle and lies nearly parallel with the edges of the corium. Stink-bugs. (Brochymena, Cosmopepla, Euschistus (Fig. 315), Murgantia (M. histrionica, Harlequin cabbage-bug); Pentatoma, Peribalus, Podisus, Catacantha (Fig. 314)) PENTAT6MID.E Figs. 314-320. Hemiptcra 314. Catacantha, wings (Kirkaldy) Pentatomidae. 315. Euschistus. Pentatomidae. 316. Ochterus (Garman) Ochteridae. 317. Gerris (Miall) Gerridse. 318. Corixa (Miall) Corixidae. 319. Corixa, front leg (Kolbe) Corixidae. 320. Corixa, wings (Handlirsch) Corixidae. 48. Hind femora extending much beyond the apex of the abdomen, the posterior pairs of legs arising close together and very distant from the front pair; proboscis four-jointed, but the first joint short. (Gerris, cosmop. (Fig. 317); Halobates, tropicopol.; Rheu- matobates; Onychotrechus, Chimarrhometra, Indomal.). (HY- DROBATID/E) GERRID^E Hind femora not extending much beyond the apex of the abdomen (except Rhagovelia) ; middle legs about midway between the front and hind pairs (except Rhagovelia); proboscis three-jointed. Broad-shouldered water-striders. (Microvelia, Rhagovelia, cos- mop.; Velia, Am., Palmare.) VELilDiE 49. Head articulated with the thorax as usual or at most partly fused with it; tarsi with more than a single joint 50 CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 181 Head completely fused with the thorax, the boundary more or less indicated by a shallow impression; antennae one- or two-jointed; eyes located rather dorsally; proboscis four-jointed; no distinct venation; all tarsi with two claws; male genitalia strongly asym- metrical helotrephim; Three subfamilies, probably deserving family rank, may be distin- guished as follows: a. All tarsi three-jointed. (Neotrephes, Paratrephes, Neotrop.). NEOTREPHIN^E Fore tarsi one-jointed; hind tarsi with two joints b b. Body flattened, suture between head and pronotum absent; antenna! one-jointed. (Idiocoris, Paskia, Ethiop.) IDIOCORINjE Body strongly convex; suture between head and thorax visible; antennae two-jointed. (Helotrephes, Hydrotreph.es, Indomal.). HELOTREPHINjE 50. Front tarsi of the usual form 51 Front tarsi consisting of a single spatulate joint bearing a leaf-like claw; body flattened above; head overlapping the pronotum; proboscis very short, hidden, one- or two-jointed; middle legs long, hind legs formed for swimming; hind tarsi with indistinct bristle-like claws. Water boatmen CORtXIDJE a. Scutellum visible from above, covered by pronotum only at anterior margin b Scutellum covered by the pronotum entirely or with only the apex visible c b. Two ocelli; antennae four-jointed. (Diaprepocoris, Austr.). DIAPREPOCORIN^ Ocelli wanting; antennae three-jointed. (Micronecta, Tenagobia, widespr.) MICRONECTlNvE c. Fore wings with an embolar groove (a deep groove next the front margin on basal half of wing) d Fore wings without embolar groove. (Stenocorixa, Ethiop.). STENOCORIXIN^E d. Proboscis smooth, without transverse ridges; median vein in fore wing curving abruptly to the costal margin. (Cymatia, widespr.). CYMATIlNiE Proboscis roughened by transverse ridges; median vein in fore wing usually curving posteriorly at tip to fuse with the cubitus e e. Cheeks, below the eyes, very broad, lower margin of eye concave; median vein indistinct, parallel and very close to cubitus. (Hetero- corixa, widespr.) HETEROCORIXIN^E Cheeks not broad below; median vein distinct, midway between cubital vein and costal margin, usually fused at apex with cubitus. 182 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology (Glenocorisa, Holarc; Corixa, cosmop. (Figs. 318, 319, 320); Graptocorixa, Neotrop.; Agraptocorixa, Old World). (Including SIGARID/E and MICRON ECT ID /E) CORIXlN^ 51. Upper wings of leathery consistency, with the clavus, corium and membrane developed; legs often modified for swimming or grasping 52 Upper wings transparent, the corium and membrane not separated, with longitudinal veins and crossveins that enclose numerous cells. Austr. and Neotrop. (Peloridium). (See page 167). PELORIDilDiE 52. Ocelli present; proboscis four-jointed; shore-living species 53 Ocelli absent; proboscis usually three -jointed; aquatic species 54 53. Antenna: exposed; front legs as long as the middle pair, formed for running; small active bugs. (Ochterus (—Pelogonus), widespr., Megochterus, Austr.) (Fig. 316). (PELOG6N1D/E) OCHTfcRIDiE Antennae hidden; front legs raptorial; short, broad species with prominent eyes. Toad-bugs. (Mononyx, Nerthra, Gelastocoris ( = Gdlgulus)). (GALGOLID/E, GELASTOC6RIDAE, MO- NONYCHIDAi) NfiRTHRIDjE 54. Front coxae inserted at or near the front margin of the prosternum; front legs formed for grasping; hind tarsi with distinct claws. . .56 Front coxae inserted at the hind margin of the short prosternum; legs fitted for swimming, the hind tarsi without claws; upper wings strongly convex, the membrane without veins; body convex above. Back-swimmers 55 55. Hind tibiae and tarsi ciliate; hind tarsi with only one claw; abdomen with a median carinate ridge below; beak four-jointed; eyes large. (Notonecta, cosmop.; Anisops, widespr.; Buenoa, Am. (Fig. 321)). noton£ctim; Hind tibiae and tarsi simple, not ciliate; hind tarsi with two claws; abdomen not carinate beneath; beak three-jointed; eyes small. (Plea, widespr.). (See page 167) PLEIM1 56. Upper wings with the membrane reticulately veined; beak with very small labial palpi 57 Membrane without veins; beak without labial palpi; hind coxae hinged; hind tibiae slender, with small spines. Water creepers. (Heleocoris, widespr.; Cheirochela, Indomal.; Ambrysus, Naucoris, Pelocoris). (Including APHELOCHIRIDM) . NAUCORID^ a. Proboscis as long as the front femora, slender; antennae extending beyond the side margins of the head; front legs with the tibiae straight, the tarsi movable b Proboscis much shorter than front femora, thickened at base; an- CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 183 tennae completely concealed beneath margin of head; front femora much thickened, their tibiae curved, and their tarsi not movable c Proboscis very long, reaching as far as middle coxae, its last joint shorter than the preceding one; front tarsi three-jointed. APHELOCHIRiN^E Proboscis reaching only to front coxae, the last two joints subequal; front tarsi one-jointed POTAMOCORiN^ Anterior margin of pronotum deeply emarginate medially d Anterior margin of pronotum straight or scarcely concave f Figs. 321-328. Hemiptera 321. Notonecta (Miall) Notonectidae. 322. Nepa, wings (Handlirsch) Nepidae. 323. Polyctenes (Westwood) Polyctenidae. 324. Lethocerus (Smith) Belostomatidae. 325. Nepa (Miall) Nepidae. 326. Termitaradus (Myers) Termitaphididae. 327. Termitaradus, marginal lobe (Myers) Termitaphididae. 328. Ranatra, apical portion of front leg (Hungerford) Nepidae. d. Proboscis arising in a deep pit, well behind the anterior margin of the head CHEIROCHELIN^ Proboscis arising at the anterior margin of the head e e. Prosternum completely exposed, separated from the flattened pleurae by simple sutures ? CRYPHOCRIClN^ Prosternum covered behind by the propleurae which are produced medially covering its hind part AMBRYSIN7E f. Front tarsi two-jointed, with two, often vestigial claws. LACCOCORIN^E Front tarsi one-jointed, without or with one vestigial claw g 184 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology g. Inner margin of eyes divergent anteriorly LIMNOCHORlN^E Inner margin of eyes divergent posteriorly NAUCOR.iN.flL 57. Hind coxae hinged, hind legs fitted for swimming, posterior tibiae flattened and fringed, hind femora usually sulcate; tip of abdo- men with two short, flat, retractile appendages. Giant water- bugs, Electric light bugs, Toe-biters. (Belostoma, Benacus, Abedus, Lethocerus, widespr. (Fig. 324); Zaitha, Sphaerodema). belostomatim; Hind coxae globular, rotating; hind legs formed for walking, not flattened; apical appendages of abdomen long and slender, not retractile, forming a respiratory siphon. Water-scorpions. (Lac- cotrephes, Palaearc, Indoaustr.; Cercometus, Indomal. (Figs. 322— 325); Nepa, Ranatra, cosmop. (Fig. 328)) NEPIDiE 58. Broadly oval, flat, completely wingless species; head in front with a deep median incision; clypeus without movable appendage; living in termite nests. (Termitaphis ( — Termitocoris), Termitaradus (Figs. 326, 327) Neotrop.). (TERMIT0C6RID&). TERMITAPHfDIDyE Body oblong, head broadly triangular with series of comb-like spines beneath; eyes and scutellum absent; upper wings vestigial; para- sites of bats. (Eoctenes, Hesperoctenes, Polyctenes, widespr. (Fig. 323)) POLYCTENID^E LITERATURE ON HEMIPTERA Banks, N. Catalogue of Nearctic Hemiptera-Heteroptera. Philadelphia, Am. Ent. Soc, 103 pp. (1910). Berg, C. Hemiptera Argentina. Anal. Soc. Cient. Argentina, 5-34 (1878-1892) (numerous parts). Britton, W. E. (Editor). Hemiptera and Homoptera of Connecticut. Con- necticut Nat. Hist. Surv., Bull. No. 34, 783 pp. (1923). (Various authors). Butler, E. A. A Biology of the British Hemiptera-Heteroptera. London, 695 pp. (1923). Champion, G. C. Hemiptera-Heteroptera. In Biologia Centrali-Americana, 2 (1897-1901). Distant, W. L. Hemiptera-Heteroptera. In Biologia Centrali-Americana, 1 (1880-1893). Rhynchota in Fauna of British India, 5 vols., London (1902-10). Dohrn, A. Catalogus Hemipterorum. Ent. Verein, Stettin, 112 pp. (1859). Guerin, J. and Peneau, J. Faune entomologique armoricaine, Hemipteres. Trav. Sci. Univ. Rennes, 13, pp. 201-301 (1915). Horvath, G. Nomenclature des families des Hemipteres. Ann. Mus. Nat. Hungarici, 9, pp. 1-34 (1911). Hemiptera. Fauna Regni Hungarian, 1, pp. 5-64 (1918). Kirkaldy, G. W. Hemiptera. Fauna Hawaiiensis, 3, Pt. 2 (1902); 2, Pt. 6 (1902). CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 185 Lethierry, L. and Severin, G. Catalogue Generate des Hemipteres, 3 vols., Brussels (1893-96). Oshanin, B. Verzeichnis der palaarktischen Hemipteren. Ann. Mus. Zool. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersbourg, 11-15 (1906-10). Katalog der palaarktischen Hemipteren, 187 pp., Berlin (R. Friedlander und Sohn) (1912). Vade mecum destine a faciliter la determination des Hemipteres. Hor. Soc. Ent. Rossicae, 42, No. 2, pp. 1-106 (1916). (Very complete and classified list of literature.) Peneau, M. J. Hemipteres. In Houlbert, Encyclop. Sci., 2 vols. (1922). Stal, C. Bidrag till Rio Taneiro-traktens Hemipter-fauna. K. Svensk. Akad. Handl., 2 and 3 (1860-62). Hemiptera africana, 1-4, Holmiae (1864-66). Hemiptera Fabriciana. Svensk. Vet. Akad. Handl., 7 and 8 (1868-69). Enumeratio hemipterorum. Svensk. Vet. Akad. Handl., 9-15 (1870— 76). Van Duzee, E. P. Catalogue of the Hemiptera of America north of Mexico, except Aphididae, Coccidae and Aleurodidae. Univ. California Pub. Ent, 2, 902 pp. (1917). Villiers, A. Hemipteres de France. In Faune de France, fasc. 1-3, 206 pp., 24 pis. 316 figs. (1945-47). LITERATURE ON SUBORDER HOMOPTERA (GENERAL) (See also General List on Hemiptera, p. 184) Costa Lima, A. da. Homopteros do Brasil. Ins. do Brasil, 3, 327 pp., 267 figs. (1942). Distant, W. L. Fauna of British India, 6, 240 pp. (Homoptera appendix). Distant, W. L. and W. W. Fowler. Homoptera. In Biologia Centrali-Ameri- cana, 1 (1881-1905). Edwards, J. The Hemiptera Homoptera of the British Isles. 271 pp., London (1894-96). Fowler, W. W. Homoptera. In Biologia Centrali-Americana, 2, pt. 1 (1894— 1909). Jensen-Haarup, A. C. The Danish Homoptera. Copenhagen (1920). Melichar, L. Die Homopterenfauna von Ceylon. 248 pp., Berlin (1903). Metcalf, Z. P. Bibliography of the Homoptera (Auchenorrhyncha). (Authors' List and Journals). 2 vols., 1072 pp. Univ. North Carolina, Raleigh (1945). Homoptera of Guam. Bull. Bishop Mus., 189, 58 pp. (1946). Osborn, H. Homoptera of Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands (Exclusive of Sternorrhyncha) . Sci. Surv. Porto Rico, 14, pp. 111-260, 71 figs. (1935). Oshanin, B. Katalog der palaarktischen Hemipteren. 187 pp., Berlin (R. Friedlander und Sohn) (1912). Vade mecum destine a faciliter la determination des Hemipteres. Hor. Soc. Ent. Rossicae, 42, No. 2, pp. 1-106 (1916). (Very complete and classified list of literature.) 186 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Van Duzee, E. P. Catalogue of the Hemiptera of America north of Mexico, except Aphididae, Coccidae and Aleyrodidae. Univ. California Publ. Tech. Bull. Ent., 2 (1917). Walker, F. List of Specimens of Homopterous Insects in the British Museum, 1-4 (1850-52); Supplement (1858) London, British Museum. Zimmerman, E. C. Homoptera. Insects of Hawaii, 4-5, 732 pp. (1948). CICADOIDEA Ashton, H. A Revision of the Australian Cicadidae, Pt. 1. Proc. Roy. Soc Victoria, 33, pp. 87-107 (1921). Buckton, G. B. A Monograph of the British Cicadas. 2 vols., London (1890- Deletang, L. F. Monografia de los Cicadidos Argentinos. An. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, 31, pp. 538-649 (1923). Distant, W. L. Monograph of the Oriental Cicadidae. London, 158 pp. (1889- 92). A Synonymic Catalogue of the Cicadidae. 207 pp., London, British Museum (1906). Cicadidae, Cicadinae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 142, 64 pp. (1913). Cicadidae, Gaeaninae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 158, 38 pp. (1914). Haupt, H. Neueinteilung der Homoptera-Cicadina. Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f. Syst, 58, pp. 173-286 (1929). Horvath, G. Cicadidarum genera palaearctica. Ann. Mus. Nat. Hungarici, 10, pp. 599-609 (1912). Kato, M. Catalogue of Japanese Cicadidae. Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Formosa, 17, pp. 19-41 (1927). Lawson, P. B. The Cicadidae of Kansas. Kansas Univ. Sci. Bull., 12, pp. 307-352 (1920). Melichar, L. Die Cicadinen von Mitteleuropa. Berlin, 364 pp. (1896). Moulton, J. Cicadas of Malaysia. Journ. Fed. Malay States Mus., 11, pp. 69-182 (1923). Myers, J. G. Insect Singers. A Natural History of the Cicadas. London, Geo. Routledge and Sons (1929). (Very complete bibliography). Ossiannilsson, F. Catalogue of Cicadina of Sweden. Opusc. Ent., 13, 25 pp. (1948). MEMBRACOIDEA Ball, E. D. A Monographic Revision of the Tree-hoppers of the Tribe Telamonini of North America. Ent. Americana, 12, pp. 1-69, 4 pis., (1932). Buckton, G. B. Monograph of Membracidae. 296 pp., London (1901-03). Caldwell, J. S. Revision of North American Ceresini. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 98, No. 3234, pp. 491-521 (1949). Evans, J. W. On the Classification of Membracidae. Trans. Roy. Ent. Soc. London, 99, pp. 497-515 (1948). Funkhouser, W. D. Review of the Philippine Membracidae. Philippine Journ. Sci., 10D, pp. 365^105 (1915). Membracidae. Gen. Cat. Hemip. fasc. 1 (1927) Smith College, North- ampton, Mass. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 187 Membracidae of Guatemala. Ann. Ent. Soc. America, 36, pp. 455-482, 2 pis. (1943). Membracidae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 208, 383 pp., 14 pis. (1950). Goding, F. W. Catalogue of Membracidae of North America. Bull. Illinois State Lab. Nat. Hist., 3, pp. 391-482 (1892). A Monograph of the Australian Membracidae. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, 38, pp. 2-41 (1903). Classification of die Membracidae of America. Journ. New York Ent. Soc, 34, pp. 295-317 (1926). Revision of the Membracidae of South America and the Antilles. Journ. New York Ent. Soc, 35, pp. 183-191 (1927). The Membracidae of South America and the Antilles. Pt. 4, Trans. American Ent. Soc, 55, pp. 197-330 (1929). The Old World Membracidae. Journ. New York Ent. Soc, 39, pp. 299- 313, 606 (1931); 42, pp. 451-480 (1934); 47, pp. 315-349 (1939). Lawson, P. B. Membracidae of Kansas. Kansas Univ. Quarterly, 13, pp. 29- 110(1922). Richter, O. Contribucion al conocimiento de los Membracidae de Colombia. II-IV. Caldasia, 3, pp. 41-48; 5, pp. 41-49, 15 figs.; 6, pp. 81-112 (1941- 42). Van Duzee, E. P. Review of North American Membracidae. Bull. Buffalo Soc. Nat. Sci., 9, pp. 29-129 (1908). CERCOPOIDEA Baker. C. F. Some Philippine and Malaysian Machaerotidae. Philippine Journ. Sci., 32, pp. 529-548 (1927). Doering, K. Synopsis of North American Cercopidae. Journ. Kansas Ent. Soc, 3, pp. 53-64; 81-108 (1930). Goding, F. W. Synopsis of Genera of North American Cercopidae. Bull. Illinois State Lab. Nat. Hist., 3, pp. 483-501 (1895). Lallemand, V. Cercopidae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 143, 167 pp. (1913). Matsumura, S. Monographic der Cercopiden Japans. Journ. Sapporo Agric Coll., 2, p. 15 (1903) and Annot. Zool. Japonenses, 5, pp. 31-55 (1904). Metcalf, Z. P. and G. Horton. The Cercopoidea of China. Lingnan Sci. Journ., 13, pp. 307-429, 7 pis., 2 figs. (1934). Pendlebury, H. M. Malaysian Cercopidae. Journ. Fed. Malay States Mus., 16, pp. 108-118 (1930). Schmidt, E. Monographic der Macherotiden. Stettiner Ent. Zeitg., 68, pp. 165— 200 (1907). JASSOIDEA Buys, J. L. Cicadellidae of Ithaca, New York. Mem. Cornell Univ. Agric. Expt. Sta., No. 80, 115 pp. (1924). Crumb, S. E. Partial Key to Genera of North American Jassidae. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 25, pp. 129-137 (1914). De Long, D. M. A Monographic Study of the North American Species of the Subfamily Gyponinae. xiv + 187 pp., 35 pis. Ohio State Univ., Columbus (1942). 188 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Leaf-hoppers or Cicadellidae of Illinois. Bull. Illinois Nat. Hist. Surv., 24, pp. 97-376, 514 figs. (1948). De Long, D. M. and J. Caldwell. Check List of Cicadellidae of North America, iv -f 93 pp. Ohio State Univ., Columbus (1937). Evans, J. W. Revision of the Ipoinae (Eurymelidae). Trans. Roy. Soc. South Australia, 58, pp. 149-167, 4 figs. (1934). The Bythoscopidae of Australia. Pap. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasmania, 1935, pp. 61-83, 3 pis. (1936). A Contribution to the Study of the Jassoidea. Pap. Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasmania, 1938, pp. 19-55, 8 pis., 3 figs. (1939). A Natural Classification of Jassoidea. Trans. Roy. Ent. Soc. London, 96, pp. 47-60; 97, pp. 39-54 (1946). Hartzell, A. Empoasca in North America. Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci., 30, pp. 87-133 (1923). Johnson, D. M. Leafhoppers of Ohio. 86 pp., 5 pis. (1935). Lathrop, F. H. The Cicadellidae of South Carolina. Bull. South Carolina Agric. Expt. Sta., 199, 119 pp. (1919). Lawson, P. B. The Cicadellidae of Kansas. Kansas Univ. Sci. Bull., 12, No. 1, Ent., 4, pp. 1-306 (1920). Matsumura, S. Monographic der Jassinen Japans. Termes. Fiizetek, 25, pp. 353-404 (1902). Revision of the Palaearctic and Oriental Typhlocybid-Genera with De- scriptions of New Species and New Genera. Ins. Matsumurana, 6, pp. 93-120 (1932). McAtee, W. L. The Genera of the Eupterygidse. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 31, pp. 109-124 (1918). Genera and Subgenera of Eupteryginae. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1934, pp. 93-117, 5 pis. (1934). Medler, J. T. Cicadellidae. Tech. Bull. Minn. Agric. Exp. Sta. No. 155, pp. 1-196, 9 pis. (1942). Melichar, L. Monographic der Cicadelliden. I-IV. Ann. Hist.-nat. Mus. Hung., 21, pp. 195-243 (1924); 22, pp. 329-410 (1925); 23, pp. 273-394 (1926); 27, pp. 285-328 (1931). Merino, G. Philippine Cicadellidae. Philippine Journ. Sci., 61, pp. 307-400, 4 pis. (1937). Metcalf, Z. P. Tettigellidae and Gyponidae of British Guiana. Zoologica, New York, 34, pp. 259-282 (1949). Metcalf, Z. P. and S. C. Bruner. Gyponidae of Cuba. Florida Ent., 32, pp. 90-104 (1949). Naude, T. J. Cicadellidae of South Africa. Ent. Mem. Dept. Agric. Pre- toria, No. 4, 106 pp. (1926). Oman, P. W. Classification of Agallian Leaf-hoppers. Bull. U. S. Dept. Agric, No. 372, 93 pp., 4 pis., 18 figs. (1933). Revision of American Bythoscopinae and South American Jassinae. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 24, pp. 343-420, 9 pis. (1936). Osborn, H. The Leafhoppers of Ohio. Ohio State Univ. Bull. 32, pp. 199-374 (1928). Neotropical Homoptera, Part 6. (Typhlocybinae) . Ann. Carnegie Mus., 18, pp. 253-298 (1928). Cicadellidae. Insects of Samoa, fasc. 2, pp. 163-192, 15 figs. (1932). CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 189 FULGOROIDEA Baker, C. F. Spolia Mentawiensia: Homoptera Fulgoroidea. Philippine Journ. Sci.,32, pp. 391-412 (1927). Caldwell, J. S. Issidae from Mexico. Ann. Ent. Soc. America, 38, pp. 89-120 (1945). Crawford, D. L. Monograph of American Delphacidae. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 46, pp. 557-640 (1914). Doering, K. C. Taxonomy of Issinae of North America. I-IV. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull, 24, pp. 421-467, 7 pis. (1936); 25, pp. 447-575 (1938); 26, pp. 83-167, 10 pis. (1940); 27, pp. 185-233, 6 pis. (1941). Dozier, H. L. The Fulgorida? of Mississippi. Tech. Bull. Mississippi Agric. Expt. Sta, No. 14, 152 pp. (1928). Fennah, R. G. The Tropiduchidae of the Lesser Antilles. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, 47, pp. 137-167, 2 pis. (1945). Giffard, W. M. A Review of the Hawaiian Cixiidae, with Descriptions of Species (Homoptera). Proc. Hawaiian Ent. Soc, 6, pp. 51-156 (1925). Lindberg, H. Materialien zu einer Monographic der Gattung Tettigometra. Notul. Ent, 28, pp. 1-40, 4 pis, 23 figs. (1948). Matsumura, S. Uebersicht der Fulgoriden Japans. Ent. Nachricht, 26, pp. 205-213; 257-270 (1900). Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Fulgoriden Japans. Ann. Mus. Nat. Hun- garici, 12, pp. 261-305 (1914). Die Cixiinen Japans. Annot. Zool. Jap. Tokyo, 8, pp. 393-434 (1914). Melichar, L. Monographic der Ricaniiden. Ann. Hofmus. Wien, 13, pp. 197-359 (1898). Monographic der Acanaloniden und Flatiden. Ann. Hofmus. Wien, 16, pp. 178-258 (1901); 17, pp. 1-253 (1902). Monographic der Issiden. Abh. zool.-bot. Ges. Wien, 3, pp. 1-327 (1906). Monographic der Dictyopharinen. Abh. zool.-bot. Ges. Wien, 7, pp. 1-221 (1912). Monographic der Tropiduchinen. Verh. naturh. Ver. Briinn, 53, pp. 82-225 (1914). Monographic der Lophopinen. Ann. Mus. Nat. Hungarici, 13, pp. 337- 385 (1915). Metcalf, Z. P. Fulgoridac of Eastern North America. Journ. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc, 38, pp. 139-230 (1923). Catalogue of Tettigometridae. Fasc. IV, Cat. Hemiptera, Northampton, Mass, Part 1, 69 pp. (1932). Catalogue of Cixiidse. Ibid, Part 2, 269 pp. (1936). Catalogue of Araeopidae (Delphacidae). Ibid, Part 3, 552 pp. (1943). Catalogue of Derbidae. Ibid, Part 4, pp. 11-212 (1945). Catalogue of Achilixiida;. Ibid, Part 5, pp. 213-218 (1945). Catalogue of Meenoplidae. Ibid, Part 6, pp. 219-238 (1945). Catalogue of Kinnaridae. Ibid, Part 7, pp. 239-252 (1945). Catalogue of Dictyopharidae. Ibid, Part 8, 246 pp. (1946). Catalogue of Fulgoridae. Ibid, Part 9, 276 pp. (1947). Catalogue of Achilidae. Ibid, Part 10, 85 pp. (1948). 190 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Fulgorina of Panama. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 82, pp. 277-423, 23 pis. (1938). Bibliography of Homoptera Auchenorryncha. 2 vols. 1672 pp. Raleigh, North Carolina (1945). Metcalf, Z. P. and S. C. Bruner. Acanaloniidse and Tropiduchidae of Cuba. Psyche, 37, pp. 407-417 (1930). Cuban Flatida:. Ann. Ent. Soc. America, 41, pp. 63-118 (1948). Muir, F. Derbidse of the Philippine Islands. Philippine Journ. Sci., 12D, pp. 49-104 (1917). Classification of the Fulgoroidea. Proc. Hawaiian Entom. Soc, 5, pp. 205-247 (1922). South American Fulgoroidea, Pt. 1, Delphacidae. Bull. Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Exp. Sta., No. 18 (1926). Classification of the Fulgoroidea. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (10), 6, pp. 461-478 (1930). Muir, F. and W. M. Giffard. Studies in North American Delphacidae. En- tom. Bull. Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Expt. Sta., No. 15, 53 pp. (1924). Osborn, H. Fulgoridce of Ohio. Bull. Ohio Biol. Surv., 35, pp. 283-349, 42 figs. (1938). Van Duzee, E. P. Review of North American Delphacidae. Bull. Buffalo Soc. Nat. Sci., 5, pp. 225-261 (1897). CHERMOIDEA Aulmann, G. Psyllidarum catalogus. 92 pp. W. Junk, Berlin (1913). Blote, A. C. Overzicht der Nederlandsche Psyllidensoorten. Tijdschr. Entom., 69, pp. 57-84 (1926). Crawford, D. L. Monograph of Psyllidae of the New World. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 85, 186 pp. (1914). The Psyllidse of the Hawaiian Islands. Proc. Hawaiian Entom. Soc, 3, pp. 430-457 (1918). Pflugfelder, O. Psyllina (Chermoidea). In Bronn, Klass. u. Ordnungen des Tierreichs, 5, Abt. 3, Buch VIII, pp. 1-95, 75 figs. (1941). Tuthill, L. D. The Psyllids of America North of Mexico. Iowa State Coll. Journ. Sci., 17, pp. 443-667, 19 pis. (1943). ALEYRODOIDEA Baker, A. C. and M. L. Moles. Aleyrodidse of South America. Rev. Chilena Hist. Nat., 25, pp. 609-648 (1923). Bemis, F. E. Aleurodidas of California. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 27, pp. 471-537 (1904). Corbett, G. H. 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Mexico, 2, pp. 143-189, 24 figs. (1940). Singh, K. Aleyrodidae of India. Mem. Dept. Agric. India, 12, pp. 1-98, 37 pis. (1931). Takahashi, R. Aleyrodidae of Formosa. Rept. Dept. Agric. Formosa, 4 parts, 59, 57 pp. (1932); 60, 24 pp., 15 figs. (1933); 63, pp. 39-71, 22 figs. (1934); 66, pp. 39-65 (1935). APHIDOIDEA Annand, P. N. A Contribution toward a Monograph of the Adelginae (Phyl- loxeridae) of North America. Stanford Univ. Publ. Biol. Sci., 6, pp. 1-146 (1928). Baker, A. C. A Generic Classification of the Hemipterous Family Aphididae. Bull. U. S. Dept. Agric, 826, pp. 1-109 (1920). Blanchard, E. E. Estudio sistematico de los Afidoideos argentinos. Physis, 17, pp. 857-1003 (1939). Borner, C. Das System der Phylloxerinen. Zool. Anz., 33, pp. 600-612 (1908). Monographische Studie iiber die Chermiden. Arb. Kais. biol. Anst. Land. Forstwirtsch., 6, Pt. 2 (1908). Beitrage zu einem neuen System der Blattlause. Arch. Klass. Phylog. Ent., 1, pp. 115-194 (1930). Buckton, G. B. 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Theobald, F. V. Aphididae of Great Britain. I. 372 pp. London, Headley Bros. (1926). Tsing, S. and Chia-chu Tao. List of the Aphididae of China. Ent. and Phytopath., 4, pp. 120-176, 3 figs. (1936). Wilson, H. F. A Synopsis of the Aphid tribe Pterocommini. Ann. Ent. Soc. America, 8, pp. 347-358 (1915). Wilson, H. F. and R. A. Vickery. Species List of Aphididae of World and Food Plants. Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci., Arts, Letters, 19, Pt. 1, pp. 22- 355 (1918). COCCOIDEA Chamberlin, J. C. Systematic Monograph of the Tachardiinae. Bull. Ent. Re- search, 14, pp. 147-212 (1923). Cockerell, T. D. A. Coccoidea. In Biologia Centrali-Americana, Homoptera, 2, Pt. 2 (1899). Fernald, M. E. Catalogue of the Coccidae of the World. Bull. Massachusetts Agric. Expt. Sta., No. 88, 360 pp. (1903). Ferris, G. F. Contributions to Knowledge of Coccidae. Microentomology, 2, pp. 1-122, 95 figs.(1937). Atlas of Scale Insects of North America. Stanford Univ. Press, Califor- nia. 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CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 195 Torre-Bueno, J. R. de la. Synopsis of the Hemiptera Heteroptera of Amer- ica. Ent. Americana, 19, pp. 141-304; 21, pp. 41-122; 26, pp. 1-141 (1939-46). (Incomplete.) Usinger, R. L. Heteroptera of Guam. Bull. Bishop Mus., 237 pp., 58 figs. (1946). f Vidal, J. Hemipteres de lAfrique du Nord. Mem. Sci. Nat. Maroc, 48, 238 pp. (1949). Weber, H. Biologie der Hemiptera. vii + 543 pp., 329 figs. Berlin, Springer. (1930). Zimmerman, E. C. Heteroptera. Insects of Hawaii, 3, 255 pp. (1948). GYMNOCERATA SCUTELLEROIDEA Barber, H. G. Cydnidae of Cuba. Journ. Dept. Agric. Porto Rico, 16, pp. 231- 240, 1 pi. (1932). Pentatomidae of Cuba. Journ. Dept. Agric. Porto Rico, 16, pp. 240- 278, 2 pis., 10 figs. (1932). Distant, W. L. Revision of Pentatomidae in the Hope collection. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1900, pp. 807-825 (1900). Hart, C. A. Pentatomoidea of Illinois with Keys to Nearctic Genera. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull., 13, pp. 157-223 (1919). Hoffman, W. E. First Supplement to Catalogue of Scutteleroidea. Lingnan Sci. Journ., 22, pp. 1-41 (1948). Horvath, G. Revision of the American Cimicidae. Ann. Mus. Nat. Hungarici, 10, pp. 257-262 (1912). Analecta ad cognitionem Cydnidarum. Ann. Mus. Nat. Hungarici, 17, pp. 205-273 (1919). Kirkaldy, G. W. Catalogue of Hemiptera. Pentatomidae (Cimicidce) . 392 pp. Berlin (1909). Generic Key to Phyllocephalinae, Phlocinae and Dinidorinae (Penta- tomidae). Canadian Ent., 45, pp. 81-84 (1913). McAtee, W. L. and J. R. Malloch. Revision of the Subfamily Thyreocorinae (Corimelaenidae). Ann. Carnegie Mus., 21, pp. 191-412, 12 pis. (1933). Parshley, H. M. Synopsis of the Pentatomidae of New England. Psyche, 22, pp. 170-177 (1915). Schouteden, H. Pentatomidae, Scutellariae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 24, 100 pp. (1904). Pentatomidae, Graphosomatinae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 30, 46 pp. (1905). Pentatomidae, Aphylinae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 47, 4 pp. (1906). Pentatomidae, Asopinae = Amyoteinae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 52, 82 pp. (1907). Pentatomidae, Dinidorinae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 153, 19 pp. (1913). Signoret, V. Revision du Groupe des Cydnides. Ann. Soc. Ent. France, 1-3 (various parts) (1881-83). Stoner, D. The Scutelleroidea of Iowa. Univ. Iowa Studies Nat. Hist., 8, No. 4, pp. 1-140 (1920). Van Duzee, E. P. List of Pentatomidae of America North of Mexico. Trans. American Ent. Soc, 30, pp. 1—80 (1904). 196 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Yang, W. I. Revision of Chinese Plataspidae. Bull. Fan Mem. Inst. Biol., 5, pp. 137-235, 42 figs. (1934). A New Family (Tahitocoridae) of Heteroptera. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (10) 16, pp. 476-484 (1935). Zimmer, J. F. The Pentatomidae of Nebraska. Univ. Nebraska, Contr. Dept. Ent., No. 4, pp. 1-33 (1912). COREOIDEA Deay, H. O. The Coreidae of Kansas. Kansas Univ. Sci. Bull., 18, pp. 371— 415 (1928). Fracker, S. B. Alydinse of the United States. Ann. Ent. Soc. America, 11, pp. 255-280 (1918). Review of North American Coreini. Ann. Ent. Soc. America, 16, pp. 165-173 (1923). Kiritschenko, A. Coreidae, Coreinae. Fauna Russie Hemiptera, 6, pt. 2, pp. 1-395 (1916) (In Russian). Pennington, M. S. Notas sobre Coreidos Argentinos. Physis, Buenos Aires, 5, pp. 125-170 (1922). Schouteden, H. Coreidae. Explor. Pare Not. Albert, fasc. 56, 42 pp. (1948). GERROIDEA Bergroth, E. Gerridae, Subfamily Halobatinae. Ohio Naturalist, 8, pp. 371- 382 (1908). Drake, C. and H. M. Harris. Gerrinae of the Western Hemisphere. Ann. Carnegie Mus., 23, pp. 179-240, 6 pis. (1934). Esaki, T. The Halobatinae in the Hungarian National Museum. Ann. Mus. Nat. Hungarici, 23, pp. 117-164 (1926). Marine Gerridae from Korea. Ent. Monthly Mag., 66, pp. 158-161, 4 figs. (1930). McKinstry, A. P. A New Family of Hemiptera — Heteroptera. Pan-Pacific Ent., 18, pp. 90-96, 4 figs. (1942). Poisson, R. Contribution a 1'etude des Gerris de France et de l'Afrique du Nord. Bull. Soc. sci. Bretagne, 17, pp. 140-173, 29 figs. (1941). White, F. B. Report on the Pelagic Hemiptera. Challenger Exped., Zool., 7, pt. 19, p. 82 (1883). ARADOIDEA Harris, H. M. and C. }. Drake. New Apterous Aradidae from the Western Hemisphere. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, 46, pp. 128-132 (1944). Horvath, G. Monographic des Mesoveliides. Ann. Mus. Nat. Hungarici, 13, pp. 535-556 (1915). Mesoveliidae. Gen. Cat. Hemiptera, pt. 2, 24 pp., Northampton, Mass., Smith College (1929). Parshley, H. M. American Species of Aradus. Trans. American Ent. Soc, 47, pp. 1-106 (1921). Reuter, O. M. and B. R. Poppius. Zur Kenntnis der Termatophyliden. Ofv. Finska Vet. Soc. Forh., 54A, pp. 1-17 (1912). CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 197 Usinger, R. L. A New Philippine Leptopodid and Classification of the Family. Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc, 37, pp. 103-106 (1942). LYGAEOIDEA Barber, H. G. Synoptic Keys to the Lygaeidae of the United States. Psyche, 24, pp. 128-135 (1917); 25, pp. 71-88 (1918). Lygaeidae of Cuba. Mem. Soc. Cubana Hist. Nat. 19, pp. 55-75 (1947). Barber, H. G. and S. C. Bruner. A New Subfamily [Pamphantinae] of Lygaeidae. Journ. New York Ent. Soc, 41, pp. 531-542, 2 pis. (1933). Horvath, G. Monographia Colobathristidarum. Ann. Mus. Hist. Nat. Hun- garici, 2, pp. 117-172 (1904). Hussey, R. F. Pyrrhocoridae. Gen. Cat. Hemiptera, 144 pp. Northampton, Mass., Smith College (1929). Knight, H. H. A Revision of the Genus Lygus in America North of Mexico. Bull. Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta., No. 391, pp. 555-645 (1917). McAtee, W. L. Key to Nearctic Geocorinae (Lygaeidae). Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 14, p. 102 (1914). Kev to Nearctic Berytidae. Journ. New York Ent. Soc, 27, pp. 79- 92 (1919). Schmidt, E. Zur Kenntnis der Familie Pyrrhocoridae. Teil II. Wiener ent. Zeit., 49, pp, 236-281, 328 (1932). Torre-Bueno, J. R. de la. North American Lygaeidae. Ent. Americana, 26, pp. 1-141 (1946). TINGOIDEA Barber, H. G. Tingitoidea of New Jersey. Circ. New Jersey Dept. Agric Bur. Statistics, No. 54, 24 pp. (1922). Drake, C. J. Australian Tingitidae. Bull. South. Calif. Acad. Sci., 46, pp. 111- 121, 3 figs. (1947). The Genus Compscuta. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, 50, pp. 197-204 (1948). American Tingitidae. Rev. Ent. Rio de Janeiro, 19, pp. 429-436 (1948). Drake, C. J. and E. J. Hambleton. Brazilian Tingitidae. Rev. Ent. Rio de Janeiro, 4, pp. 435-451, 2 figs. (1934). Drake, C. J. and M. E. Poor. The Genera and Genotypes of Tingitoidea of the Western Hemisphere. Iowa State Coll. Journ. Sci., 10, pp. 381-390 (1936). Horvath, G. Synopsis Tingitidarum regionis Palaearcticae. Ann. Mus. Nat. Hungarici, 4, pp. 1-118 (1906) McAtee, W. L. Key to Piesmidae. Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc, 14, pp. 80-93 (1919). Monte, O. Catalogo dos Tingitideos do Brasil. Arq. Zool. Sao Paulo, 2, pp. 65-174 (1941). Osborn, H. and C. J. Drake. The Tingitoidea of Ohio. Ohio State Univ. Bull., 20, pp. 217-251 (1916). Poor Hurd, M. Generic Classification of North American Tingidae. Iowa State Coll. Journ. Sci., 20, pp. 429-489 (1946). 198 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology REDUVIOIDEA Barber, H. G. Stenopodinae (Reduviidse) of America. Ent. Americana, 10, pp. 149-238 (1930). Bruner, S. C. Sinopsis de los Reduvidos de Cuba. Mem. Soc. Cubana Hist. Nat., 7, pp. 65-82 (1926). Esaki, T. and T. Ishihara. Nabidae of Micronesia. Mushi, 15, pp. 69-75 (1943). Evans, J. H. Revision of North American Phymatidae. Ann. Ent. Soc. America, 24, pp. 711-736, 2 pis. (1931). Fracker, S. B. Reduviidse of North America. Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci., 19, pp. 217-247 (1912). Handlirsch, A. Monographic der Phymatiden. Ann. Hofmus. Wien, 12, pp. 127-230 (1897). Harris, H. M. A Monographic Study of the Hemipterous Family Nabidae in North America. Ent. Americana, 9, pp. 1-90 (1928). Hoffman, W. E. Catalogue of Reduviidse of China. Lingnan Univ. Sci. Bull., No. 10, 80 pp. (1944). Johannsen, O. A. North American Henicocephalidae. Psyche, 16, pp. 1-4 (1909). Lent, H. Genus Rhodnius. Rev. Brasil., Biol., 8, pp. 297-339, 47 figs. (1948). Lent, H. and P. Wygodzinsky. Reduviinae Americanos. Rev. Brasil., Biol., 7, pp. 423-434 (1947). Key and Notes on Reduviidae. Ibid., 8, pp. 43-55, 54 figs. (1948). McAtee, W. L. and J. R. Malloch. Revision of the Ploiariinae (Reduviidae). Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 67, Art. 1, 135 pp. (1925). Miller, N. C. E. New Genera and Species of Malaysian Reduviidae. Journ. Fed. Malay States Mus., 18, pp. 415-599, 126 figs.; 601-804, 175 figs. (1941). New Genera and Species of Reduviidae [Pacific Islands]. Trans. Roy. Ent. Soc. London, 99, pp. 411-473 (1948). _ Neiva, A. and H. Lent. Noras e commentarios sobre Triatomideos. Lista de especies e sua distribucao geographica. Rev. Ent., Rio de Janeiro, 6, pp. 153-190 (1936). Pinto, C. Ensaio Monographico dos Reduvideos haematophagos o "Barbieros." 118 pp. Rio de Janeiro (1925). Classification des genres de la famille Triatomidae. Bol. Biol. Sao Paulo, fasc. 8, pp. 103-114 (1927). Readio, P. A. Biology of the Reduviidae of America North of Mexico. Sci. Bull. Univ. of Kansas, 17, pp. 1-248 (1927). Reuter, O. M. Monographia Nabidarum orbis terrestris. Acta Soc. Sci. Fennica, 37, pp. 1-62 (1909). Usinger, R. L. Miscellaneous Studies in the Henicocephalidae (Hemiptera). Pan-Pacific Ent., 8, pp. 145-156, 1 pi. (1932). Classification of Reduvioidea, with a New Subfamily from South America. Ann. Ent. Soc. America, 36, pp. 602-618 (1943). The Triatominae of North and Central America and West Indies. Public Health Bull., No. 288, 83 pp., 12 pis. (1944). Classification of the Enicocephalidae. Ann. Ent. Soc. America, 38, pp. 321-342 (1945). CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 199 Villiers, A. Morphologie et systematique des Tribelocephalitae africains. Rev. francaise Ent., 10, pp. 1-28, 53 figs. (1943). Wygodzinsky, P. Contribucao ao conhecimento do genero Elasmodemia. Rev. brasil. Biol., 4, pp. 193-213, 56 figs. (1944). POLYCTENOIDEA Costa Lima, A. Insectos da Familia Polyctenidae. Arch. Esp. Agric. Med. Vet. Nictheroy, 4, pp. 61-71 (1920). Ferris, F. F. and R. L. Usinger. The Family Polyctenidae. Microentomology, 4, pp. 1-50, 25 figs. (1939). Notes and Descriptions of American Polyctenidae. Pan-Pacific Ent., 21, pp. 121-124 (1945). Horvath, G. Description of a New Bat-Bug from India. Rec. Indian Mus., 27, pp. 191-192 (1925). Jordan, K. Morphology and Systematics of the Polyctenidae. Novit. Zool., 18, pp. 555-579 (1912). The American Polyctenidae. Ectoparasites, 1, pp. 204-215 (1922). CIMICOIDEA Atkinson, E. T. Catalogue of the Capsidae. Suppl. Journ. Roy. Asiatic Soc, 58, pt. 2, pp. 25-200 (1889). Isometopidae of New Zealand. Notulae Ent., 4, pp. 3-9 (1924). Bruner, S. C. Notes on Cuban Dicyphinae. Mem. Soc. Cubana Hist. Nat., 8, pp. 35-49, 3 pis. (1934). Carvalho, J. C. M. Mirideos neotropicais. Rev. Ent., Rio de Janeiro, 16, pp. 158-187, 45 figs. (1945). China, W. E. and J. G. Myers. Classification of the Cimicoid Families. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (10) 3, pp. 97-125 (1929). Gibson, E. H. Isometopidae of North America. Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc, 12, pp. 73-77 (1917). Hsiao, T. Y. List of Chinese Miridae with Keys to Subfamilies, etc. Iowa State Coll. Journ. Sci., 16, pp. 241-269 (1942). Knight, H. H. Key to Subfamilies of Miridae. Journ. New York Ent. Soc. 26, pp. 40-44 (1918). Monograph of the North American Species of Deraeocoris (Miridae). 18th Rept. State Ent. Minnesota for 1920, pp. 76-210. Reprinted as Tech. Bull. 1, Univ. Minnesota Agr. Exp. Sta. (1921). The plant bugs, or Miridae, of Illinois. Bull. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv., 22, pp. 1-234, 1 pi., 181 figs. (1941). Hyaliodinae, New Subfamily of Miridae. Ent. News, 54, pp. 119-121 (1943). Knight, H. H. and W. L. McAtee. Miridae of the District of Columbia. Proc U. S. Nat. Mus., 75, Art. 13; 27 pp. (1929). McAtee, W. L. Key to the Nearctic Species of Paracalocoris (Miridae). Ann. Ent. Soc. America, 9, pp. 366-390 (1916). Poppius, B. R. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Anthocoriden. Acta Soc. Sci. Fen- nica, 37, No. 9, pp. 1-43 (1909). Zur Kenntnis der Cylapinae. Acta Soc. Sci. Fennica, 37, No. 4, pp. 1-45 (1909). 200 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Beitrage zur Miridenfauna Australiens. Ofv. vet. Soc. Forh., 53, No. 3, pp. 1-16 (1911). Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Miriden von Ceylon. Ofv. vet. Soc. Hel- singfors, 53, No. 2, pp. 1-36 (1911). Miriden der aethiopischen Region. Part I, Acta Soc. Sci. Fennica, 41, pp. 1-203 (1912); Part II, ibid., 44, pp. 1-138 (1914). Reuter, O. M. Monographia anthocoridarum orbis terrestris. Acta Soc. Sci. Fennica, 14, pp. 555-758. Also published separately (1885). Neue Beitrage zur Phylogenie und System der Miriden. Acta Soc. Sci. Flor. Faun. Fennica, 37, No. 3, pp. 1-167 (1910). Die Familie der Bettwanzen. Zeits. wiss. Insektenbiol., 9, p. 251 etc. (several parts) (1913). Stichel, H. Miridae. Illustrierte Tabellen der deutschen Wanzen, Lief. 6,7, pp. 147-210, 167 figs.; 8, 9, pp. 211-274, 111 figs. (1932-33). Van Duzee, E. P. Keys to Genera of North America Miridae. Univ. California Pubs., Ent., 1, pp. 199-216 (1916). Watson, S. A. The Miridae of Ohio. Ohio State Univ. Bull., 33, 44 pp. (1928). DIPSOCOROIDEA McAtee, W. L. and J. R. Malloch. Revision of Cryptostemmaddae in the United States National Museum. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 67, Art. 13, 42 pp. (1925). Reuter, O. M. Monographia Ceratocombidarum orbis terrestris. Acta Soc. Sci. Fennica, 19, pp. 1-28 (1891). HELOTREPHOIDEA China, W. E. New and Little Known Helotrephidae. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (10) 15, pp. 593-614, 11 figs. (1935). New South American Helotrephidae. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (11) 5, pp. 106-126, 11 figs. (1940). Esaki, T. and W. E. China. A New Family (Helotrephidae) of Hemiptera. Trans. London Ent. Soc, 75, pp. 279-295 (1927). Monograph of the Helotrephinae. Eos, 4, pp. 129-172 (1928). TERMITAPHIDOIDEA Morrison, H. On three apparently new species of Termitaphis. Zoologica, New York, 3, pp. 403-408 (1923). Myers, J. G. On the Systematic Position of the Family Termitaphididae. Psyche, 31, pp. 259-278 (1924). Usinger, R. L. Revision of Termitaphididae. Pan-Pacific Ent., 8, pp. 155-159. (1942). CRYPTOCERATA Carlo, J. A. de. Los Belostomatidos Americanos. An. Mus. Argendna Cien. Nat., 39, pp. 189-260, 8 pis. (1938). Los Ranatridae de Sud America. An. Mus. Argentina Cien. Nat., 42, pp. 1-38 (1946). Revision del genero Abedus. Commun. Mus. Argentina Cien. Nat., No. 5, 24 pp., 3 pis. (1948). CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 201 Chagnon, G. and O. Fournier. Aquatic Hemiptera of Quebec. Natural. Canad, 75, pp. 49-69; 97-138, 18 figs. (1948). Cummings, C. The Giant Water Bugs (Belostomatidae). Sci. Bull. Univ. Kansas, 21, pp. 197-219, 2 pis. (1934). Ferrari, E. Die Hemipterengattung Nepa. Ann. Hofmus. Wien, 3, pp. 161 — 194 (1888). Hale, H. M. Two New Hemiptera from New South Wales. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, 49, p. 462 (1924). Studies in Australian Aquatic Hemiptera. Rec. South Australian Mus., 3, pp. 195-217 (1926). Hoffmann, W. E. Catalogue of Aquatic Hemiptera of China, Indo-China, Formosa and Korea. Lingnan Sci. Journ., 20, pp. 1-78E (1941). Hueber, T. Deutsche Wasserwanzen. Jahrb. Ver. Vaterl. Naturk. Wiirtem- burg, 61, pp. 91-176 (1905). Hungerford, H. B. The Biology and Ecology of Aquatic and Semiaquatic Hemiptera. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull., 11, pp. 3-265 (1919). The Nepidae of North America North of Mexico. Kansas Univ. Sci. Bull., 14, pp. 425-469 (1922). Revision of the Notonectidae and Corixidae of South Africa. Ann. South African Mus., 25, pp. 375-474 (1929). Corixidae of Western Hemisphere. Sci. Bull. Univ. Kansas, 32, 827 pp., 112 pis. (1948). Hutchinson, G. E. Review of the Notonectidae and Corixidae of South Africa. Ann. South African Mus., 25, pp. 359^174, 15 pis. (1929). Review of the Corixidae of India and Surrounding Regions. 138 pp., 36 pis. (1940). Karny, W. H. Biologie der Wasserinsekten. xv-f-311 pp. Wagner, Berlin. (1934). Kirkaldy, G. W. A Guide to the Study of British Waterbugs (Aquatic Rhyn- chota). Ent., 31, pp. 177-180 (1898); continued in vols. 32, 33, 38, 39, 41 (1899-1908). Revision of Notonectidae. Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1897, pp. 393-426 (1897) and Wiener Entom. Zeitg., 23, pp. 111-135 (1904). Notes on Corixidae. No. 1. Canadian Ent., 50, pp. 117-120 (1908). Mayr, G. L. Die Belostomiden. Verh. zool.-bot. Ges. Wien, 21, pp. 399-440 (1871). Melin, D. Neotropical Gelastocoridae (partial revision). Zool. Bidrag., 12, pp. 151-198 (1930). Poisson, R. Les Hemipteres aquatiques de la faune franchise. Arch. Zool. exp. gen., 77, pp. 455-563, 78 figs. (1935). Schell, D. V. The Ochteridae (Hemiptera) of the Western Hemisphere. Journ. Kansas Ent. Soc, 16, pp. 29-47 (1943). Torre-Bueno, J. R. The Genus Notonecta in North America. Journ. New York Ent. Soc, 13, pp. 143-167 (1905). Usinger, R. L. Naucoridae of the Philippine Islands. Philadelphia Journ. Sci., 64, pp. 299-311 (1938). Key to Subfamilies of Naucoridae, with Generic Synopsis of Ambrysinae. Ann. Ent. Soc. America, 34, pp. 5-16 (1941). Classification of the Cryphocricinae. Ann. Ent. Soc. America, 40, pp. 329-343, 3 figs. (1947). 202 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology PELORIDOIDEA Myers, J. G. and W. E. China. The Systematic Position of the Peloridiidae. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (10), 3, pp. 282-294 (1930). ORDER ANOPLtRA (SIPHUNCULATA, PSEUDORHYNCHdTA, PARASlTA, PHTHIRAPTERA, ELLIP6PTERA) Small, more or less flattened, wingless ectoparasites of mammals. Head free, horizontal; eyes reduced or absent; mouth anterior, com- prising an unjointed, fleshy beak; antennae short, simple. Thoracic segments fused. Legs very stout; tarsi single-jointed, forming a claw at the end of the tibia. No cerci. Metamorphosis very slight. True lice, Sucking lice, Cooties. 1. Body with spines or hairs arranged in definite rows, rarely also with scales; body flattened; spiracles only at each side of the mesothorax and on abdominal segments three to eight; antennae three or five-jointed; living exclusively on terrestrial mammals . .2 Body thickly clothed with stout, thorn-like bristles or with spines and scales; body thick and stout; mesothorax and metathorax each with a pair of spiracles as well as abdominal segments two to eight; eyes absent; antennae four- or five-jointed; living exclusively on marine mammals. (Echinophthirius, Lepido- phthirius, Antarctophthirius) ECHINOPHTHIRIID^ 2. Head rounded in front, not tubularly produced; tibiae of at least one pair of legs below with a large tooth or thumb-like process opposing the claw-like tarsus 3 Head tubularly produced anteriorly to form a beak longer than the remainder of the head; tibiae without such a process opposing the tarsus. (Haematomyzus, on elephants, Afr., E. Ind.). (This family is sometimes placed in the Mallophaga.). KLEMATOMYZID^E 3. Eyes present, large, convex and almost always distinctly pigmented; proboscis short; tibia and tarsus without a distinct sclerite between them; pleural plates usually well developed 4 Eyes absent or very indistinct; proboscis very long; legs with a chitinized sclerite between the tibia and tarsus; parasitic on a great variety of mammals but not on man 5 4. Segments three to five of abdomen fused as indicated by three pairs of spiracles on this apparent segment; sides of abdomen with segmentally placed lateral lobes; front legs much more slender than the others. (Phthirius (Fig. 330), on man and gorilla (P. pubis, Pubic or Crab louse)) PHTHIRlIDiE 5. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 203 Abdominal segments all free, as indicated by the position of their spiracles; sides of abdominal segments without such lateral lobes; front legs similar to the others, and scarcely more slender. (Pedi- culus (Figs. 329, 331), on man and monkeys. Cooties. (P. humanus, Head louse, Body louse)) PEDICULIDiE Antennae five-jointed ^ " Antennae three- or four-jointed. (Haematopinoides, on Geomys; Hamophthirius, on monkeys) ILEMATOPINOIDIM Figs. 329-332. Anoplura 329. Pediculus (Patton and Cragg) Pediculida. 330. Phthirius (Patton and Cragg) Phthiriidae. 331. Pediculus, tip of leg (Ewing) Pediculidae. 332. Hoplopleura (Ferris) Haematopinidat. 6. Thorax and abdomen distinctly separated. (Haematopinus, on un- gulates (H. suis, Hog louse); Hoplopleura (Fig. 332), on Roden- tia; Linognathus, on Artiodactyla and dogs; Polyplax, on Rodentia and Insectivora). (Including HOPLOPLEURIDtf). H^MATOPlNIDiE Thorax and abdomen fused together; abdominal tergites and sternites not developed; very small slender species parasitic on elephant shrews. (Neolinognathus, Ethiop.) . . . NEOLINOGNATHIDjE LITERATURE ON ANOPLURA Bedford, G. A. H. A Synoptic Check List and Host List of the Ectoparasites found on South African Mammalia, Aves and Reptilia (Second Edition). Rep. Vet. Res. S. Africa, 18, pp. 308-414, 4 figs. (1932). Brinck, P. Catalogus insectorum sueciaj. IX. Anoplura. Opusc. Ent., 13, pp. 129-133 (1948). Buxton, P. A. The Louse. Anoplura of Man. viii + 164 pp., 47 figs. Arnold and Co., London (1947). Dalla Torre, K. W. Anoplura. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 81, 22 pp. (1908). Denny, H. Monographia Anoplurorum Britanniae. London (1842). 204 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology ■ Eichler, W. Zur Klassification der Lauskerfe. Arch. Naturg., B 10, pp. 345- 398 (1941). Enderlein, G. Lause-Studien. Zool. Anz., 27, pp. 220-223 (1904); 28, pp. 626-638 (1905). Ewing, H. E. Revision of the American Lice of the Genus Pediculus. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 68, Art. 19, pp. 1-30 (1926). Fahrenholz, H. Zur Systematik der Anopluren. Z. Parasitenk., 9, pp. 50-56 (1936). Ferris, G. F. A Catalogue and Host List of the Anoplura. Proc. California Acad. Sci. (4) 6, pp. 129-213 (1916). Sucking Lice, a Monograph. Leland Stanford Jr. Univ. Pub. Univ. Ser. 2, 8 parts, 634 pp. (1919-1935). The Sucking Lice. Mem. Pacific Coast Ent. Soc, 1, 320 pp., 124 figs. (1951). Jancke, O. Anoplura. Tierwelt Deutschlands, 35, pp. 43-78, 26 figs. (1938). Kellogg, V. L. and G. F. Ferris. Anoplura and Mallophaga of North Ameri- can Mammals. Leland Stanford Jr. Univ. Pub. Univ. Ser. 1915, 74 pp. (1915). Nuttall, G. H. F. Classification of Anoplura. Parasitology, 11, pp. 329-346 (1919). Piaget, E. Les Pediculines. I, 714 pp. (1880); II., 162 pp. (1885) Leiden. Seguy, E. Insectes ectoparasites (Mallophages, Anoploures, Siphonaptera). Faune de France, 43, pp. 409-459 (1944). Zimmerman, E. C. Anoplura. Insects of Hawaii, 2, pp. 295-314 (1948). ORDER NEUROPTERA SUBORDER SIALODEA (MEGAL6PTERA) Soft-bodied species with large wings, long and sometimes pectinate antennae and simple, similar legs. Costal cell with many transverse veins, subcosta and first radius simple, apically fused, the radial sector arising near the base; hind wings with the anal space normally large, folded fan-like when at rest. Prothorax quadrate. Metamorphosis com- plete; larvae aquatic, living in freshwater streams; predatory, mandibu- late, possessing lateral abdominal gill-filaments; wings appearing in the pupal stage; no cocoon. Adults 1. Three ocelli present; fourth joint of the tarsi simple, not bilobed; venation regular, with the crossveins weakly formed, branches of the radial sector directed backward; large or medium sized species, 45 to 100 mm. in wing expanse. (Figs. 333, 335). (Ar- chichauliodes, Austr.; Chauliodes, Neohermes, Corydalis (Dobson, Hellgrammite), Am.; Neochauliodes, Indomal.; Hermes, Neuro- mus, Protohermes, Neoneuromus, Asia) CORYDALIDiE CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 205 Ocelli absent; fourth joint of the tarsi prominently bilobed; some of the branches of the radial sector directed forward; medium sized species, 20 to 40 mm. in wing expanse. (Fig. 334). (Proto- sialis, Am.; Austrosialis, Stenosialis, Austr.; Sialis, Holarc). SIALIDjE Larvae Eight pairs of lateral gills; a pair of hooked anal prolegs, but no terminal filament CORYDALIDiE Seven pairs of lateral gills; no anal prolegs; terminal filament present SlALID^E Figs. 333-335. Neuroptera 333. Corydalis, wings. Corydalids. 334. Austrosialis, wings (Tillyard) Sialidae. 335. Chauliodes, wings. Corydalidae. SUBORDER RAPHIDIODEA (RAPHIDIOIDEA, EMMEN6GNATHA, part.) Moderate-sized, slender, predatory species with elongate cylindrical prothorax; head large, nearly horizontal, mandibles strong, antennae long and thread-like; ovipositor long; cerci not developed; wings mem- branous, both pairs similar, with numerous forkings, the costal cell with crossveins, subcosta not fused with the first radial; legs similar, the first pair attached at the base of the prothorax, tarsi five-jointed. Metamorphosis complete; larvae terrestrial. Snake-flies, Serpent-flies. 1. Ocelli present; pterostigma bordered proximally by a veinlet from Ri. (Raphidia, Palaearc; Agiilla, Palasarc, Am. (Figs. 336, 338)). RAPHIDIID^ Ocelli absent; pterostigma not bordered proximally by a veinlet from Ri. (Inocellia, Holarc. (Fig. 337); Fibla, Eur.) INOCELLIID^ 206 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology SUBORDER PLANIPfiNNIA (SYNISTATA, part., DICTY6PTERA, part.) Small to rather large, slender, predaceous insects with large wings, but of slow flight. Head free, vertical, eyes prominent, mouth inferior, mandibles strong; prothorax more or less freely movable and prominent, meso- and metathorax not closely grown together; abdomen long and Figs. 336-338. Neuroptera 336. Agulla, head and prothorax of female, Raphidiidae. 337. Inocellia, fore wing (Carpenter) Inocelliidx. 338. Agulla, fore wing (Carpenter) Raphidiidse. narrow, the first sternite reduced, no cerci; wings similar, membranous, no large anal field; when at rest the wings usually lie roof-like over the abdomen, longitudinal veins almost always very numerous through re- peated branching, costal cell almost always with crossveins. Metamor- phosis complete, larvae terrestrial, aquatic only in Sisyridae, strongly man- dibulate, the mandibles and maxillae specialized for sucking the body juices of the insect prey; pupae in cocoons. 1. Veins and usually crossveins abundant, radial sector with several branches or forkings; wings not covered with a whitish powder. 2 Veins and crossveins few in number, the radial sector at most only forked; wings covered with a whitish powder; very small, slender, pale-colored rare species, of 3 to 10 mm. wing expanse. (Super- family CONIOPTERYGOIDEA) CONIOPTERYGID^E The following subfamilies are distinguished: a. Outer lobe of maxilla three-jointed; abdomen with four to six pairs of everted ventral pouches; stem of media of fore wings usually CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 207 with two thickenings which bear bristles. (Aleuropteryx, Holarc; Coniocompsa, Helicoconis, Holarc, Austr., Neotrop.; Hetero- conis, Austr.) ALEUROPTERYGINjE Outer lobe of maxilla with only one joint; abdomen without ventral pouches; stem of media of fore wings without thickenings bearing bristles. (Coniopteryx, Parasemidalis, widespr.; Conwentzia, Holarc; Niphas, Neotrop.; Semidalis, Palaearc, Am., Ethiop.) CONIOPTERYGlNiE 839 Figs. 339-344. Neuroptera 339. Ithone, Outline of body and wings (Tillyard) Ithonidae. 340. Mantispa, head and thorax from above. Mantispidae. 341. Mantispa, raptorial front leg. Mantispidae. 342. Dilar, wings (Handlirsch) Dilaridae. 343. Mantispa, wings (Handlirsch) Mantispidae. 344. Chasmoptera, wings (Tillyard) Nemopteridae. 2. Large, stout, showy, moth-like, cursorial species, of 30 to 79 mm. wing-expanse; costal area not broad, Sc, R and R s not forming a distinct triple vein; head small and closely set on the pro- thorax; antennae long and filiform, and tapering in both sexes, 40- to 50-jointed; abdomen of the male terminating in large forcipate appendages; ovipositor not exserted (Fig. 339). Super- family ITHONOIDEA). (Ithone, Varnia, Austr.; Oliarces, Calif.; Rapisma, Asia). (Including RAPlSMIDtf) ITHONID^E Small to large, but not moth-like insects, except the showy Psy- chopsidae which have a very broad costal area and distinctive triple vein; otherwise differing 3 3. Antennae never enlarged toward the end, moniliform or filiform, rarely pectinate; Cu usually ending near or before the middle 208 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology of the wing and without a straight longitudinal branch behind Cux 4 Antenna? at least thickly cylindrical, variable in length, usually gradually enlarged toward the end, or filiform with clavate end; at least the discal portion of the wings densely reticulate, Sc and Ri apically fused, Cu ending in the apical part of the wing and commonly with a long straight branch behind Cui (Super- family MYRMELEONTOIDEA) 16 4. Hind wings not longer than the fore wings, the two pairs similar in form and venation. (Superfamily HEMEROBlOlDEA) ...5 Hind wings greatly elongate and ribbon-like, often with widened, spoon-like ends; head usually rostrate. (Fig. 344). (Superfamily NEMOPTEROIDEA). (Chasmoptera, Austr.; Croce, Palmare, Ethiop., Austr.; Nemoptera, Nina, Palaearc; NemoDistha, Nemop- terella, Ethiop.; Veurise, Argent.) NEMOPTfiRID^ 5. Front legs normal, not raptorial 6 Front legs strong, formed for seizing prey, their coxae elongate; femora robust and spined, and tibiae curved to meet femora, pro- thorax usually greatly lengthened; antennae short; wings rather narrow. (Figs. 340, 341, 343). Mainly tropicopol. (Climaciella, Drepanicus, Symphrasis, Neotrop.; Ditaxis, Austr.; Mantfsna, cos- mop.; Euclimacia, Ethiop., Austro-mal.) MANTfSPID^ 6. Fore wings with two or more branches of R s arising from the apparently fused stems of Ri and R s 7 Fore wings with all the branches of R s arising from a single sector 9 7. Antennae moniliform in both sexes; ovipositor not projecting; cross- veins few; ocelli absent 8 Antennae of male coarsely pectinate; ovipositor exserted; vertex with three prominent ocellus-like tubercles; crossveins numerous; rather small species. Cosmopol. (Dilar (Fig. 342), Lidar, Eur.; Nalla- chius, Am.; Nepal, Asia) DILARIDyE 8. Fore wings with three or more branches of the radial sector pres- ent, veins R 4 and R-, arising separately. (Fig. 345). Cosmopol. (Boriomyia, Drepanepteryx, Gayomyia, Hemerobius, Megalomus, Micromus) (MICRdMlD/E) HEMEROBIID^ Fore wings with apparently two radial sectors, one of which is R2 + 3 and the other R4 + 5. Widespread. (Psectra, Sympherobius). SYMPHEROBIIDjE 9. Rather large, moth-like species, with broad wings, the costal area of the fore wings very wide, Sc, Ri and R s closely parallel, form- ing a chitinized triple midrib and fusing at the apical fourth of the wing, antennae short; rare, nocturnal species. (Fig. 346). (Psychopsis, Megallanes, Austr.; Psychopsella, Arteriopteryx, Psy- chophasis, Ethiop.; Megapsychops) PSYCHOPSID^ CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 209 Not moth-like, wings not broadly rounded, with normal costal area and without the above-described prominent triple vein 10 10. Ocelli present; discal area of the wings with many crossveins, mar- ginal area with no crossveins but with many forked veinlets; moderate to large, slender species. Widespr., but not North American. (Euporismus, CEdosmylus, Osmylus, Porismus, Spil- osmylus) OSMYLID^E Ocelli absent 11 11. Humeral crossvein forming a recurrent vein; discal area of the wings with a simple graduate series of crossveins, and distinct from the costal and marginal areas which have very many forked Figs. 345-346. Neuroptera 345. Micromus, wings (Tillyard) Hemerobiidae. 346. Psychopsella, outline of body and wings (Tillyard) Psychopsidae. veinlets; Sc and Ri fused near wing-tip; vertex convex; antennae moderate in length; rather large, nocturnal species, wing-expanse 40 to 75 mm. (Polystoechotes, Am.) POLYSTCECHOTID^ No recurrent vein at the humeral angle of the wings; discal area of the wings not differentiated from the marginal area; antenna: longer than the head and thorax; smaller species 12 12. Vertex convex; wing venation relatively simple, radial sector of fore wings without definitive accessory veins, Sc and Ri coal- esced near tip of wing, costal crossveins not forked, r-m cross- vein of hind wings in the axis, of the wing; size small, 6 to 8 mm. in length; larvae aquatic, feeding on freshwater sponges. (Fig. 348). Spongilla-flies. (Climacia, Nearc; Neurorthrus, Sisyrella, Palacarc; Sisyra, Holarc.) SISYRID^E Vertex flattened; the single radial sector in the fore wings with definitive accessory veins; hind wings with the r-m crossvein oblique or transverse; size larger 13 210 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology 13. Costal crossveins not forked, Sc and Ri free at the tip, R s swinging away from Ri, the cell Ri broad and containing many cross- veins; wings rounded, not falcate 14 Costal crossveins forked, cell Ri narrow and almost devoid of crossveins, apical portion of the hind margin of the fore wings sometimes widely notched, leaving the apex more or less acute (the falcate condition); wings and body hairy, especially the hind margin of the wings 15 14. Wings of nearly equal width, a crossvein placed near base of the subcostal cell, less than thirty crossveins in the costal cell before the stigma. (Fig. 351). Green lacewings, Stink-flies; the larvae are Aphis-lions. Cosmopolitan. (Allochrysa, Chrysopa, Meleoma, Nothochrysa) CHRYSOPID^ Fore wings distinctly wider than the hind pair, no crossveins near the base of the subcostal cell, more than forty costal crossveins before the stigma. (Fig. 349). Austr., Malay. (Apochrysa, Oligochrysa) APOCHRYSID^ 15. Fore wings with Sc and R fused before the wing-tip; peculiar seed- like scales often present on some part of the wings. (Fig. 350). (Acroberotha, Ethiop., Ind.; Berotha, Indomal.; Isoscelipteron, Palaearc.; Lomamyia, Am.; Cycloberotha, Austr.). BEROTHID^E Fore wings with Sc and R not fused apically; hairs of body and wings conspicuously long. (Fig. 347). (Stenobiella, Trichoma, Austr.) TRICHOMATIDjE 16. Wings about one-third as wide as long, costal area wide, marginal veinlets forked, subcostal cell with many crossveins; antennae long, cylindrical. (Myiodactylus, Osmylops, Austr.). myiodactylim; Wings much narrower, the marginal area at least in large part closely reticulate 17 17. Antennae elongate cylindrical; subcostal area with many crossveins. (Austronymphes, Nymphes, Nymphidrion, Austr.). NYMPHIDjE Antennae more or less distinctly clavate, or apically swollen or flattened; subcostal cell without crossveins 18 18. Antennae about as long as the head and thorax; wings usually with an elongate narrow cell immediately behind the point of fusion of Sc and Ri 19 Antennae long, slender, strongly clavate apically; eyes usually divided into two parts by a groove; no elongate hypostigmatic cell dif- ferentiated. Widespread, mainly tropical. (Acmonotus, Austr.; Ascalaphus, Palaearc; Colobopterus, Am.; Hybris, Indomal.; Neuroptynx, Nearc; Suhpalacsa, Ethiop., Indoaustr.; Ululddes, Am.; Nephoneura, Ethiop.) ASCALAPHIDiE CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 211 19. Antennas weakly clubbed, or flattened at tip; hypostigmatic cell elongate; body and wings pubescent; weak fliers. Larvae are called ant-lions or doodle-bugs. Widespread, mainly tropical. (Brachynemurus, Creagris, Dendroleon, Formicaleo, Hesperoleon, Myrmeleon, Palpares, Protoplectron). (MYRMELE6NID/E). MYRMELE6NTID.E Figs. 347-351. Neuroptera 347. Trichoma, outline of body and wings (Tillyard) Trichomatidae. 348. Sisyra, wings (Tillyard) Sisyridae. 349. Oligochrysa, fore wing (Tillyard) Apochrysidae. 350. Protobiella, wings (Tillyard) Berothidae. 351. Chrysopa, wings (Tillyard) Chrysopidae. Antennae strongly clubbed; hypostigmatic cell variable; abdomen and wings shining; crepuscular, strong fliers, superficially resem- bling dragonflies. (Stilbopteryx, Austr.) . STILBOPTERYGID^ LITERATURE ON NEUROPTERA Albarda, H. Revision des Raphidides. Tijd. Ent., 34, pp. 65-184 (1891). Alexandrov-Martynov, O. M. Nemopteriden Persiens und Mittelmeerlander. Zool. Anz., 90, pp. 235-250, 18 figs. (1930). Bagnall, R. S. Review of British Coniopterygidae. Ent. Rec, 27, pp. 241-247 (1915). 212 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Barnard, K. H. Cape Megaloptera. Trans. Roy. Soc. South Africa, 19, pp. 169-184(1931). Banks, N. Revision of Nearctic Chrysopida?. Trans. American Ent. Soc, 29, pp. 137-162 (1903). A Revision of the Nearctic Hemerobiidse. Trans. American Ent. Soc, 32, pp. 21-51 (1905). Catalogue of the Neuropteroid Insects of the United States. American Ent. Soc, Philadelphia, 53 pp. (1907). A Revision of the Nearctic Coniopterygidae. Proc Ent. Soc. Washington, 8, pp. 77-86(1907). Revision of the Nearctic Myrmeleonidae. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Har- vard, 68, pp. 1-84 (1927). Myrmeleonidae of Lower California. Proc. California Acad. Sci., (4) 24, pp. 133-152 (1942). Neuroptera of Northern South America. Bol. Ent. venezolana, 2, pp. 59-66, 161-173; 3, pp. 1-34 (1943-44). Review of the Chrysopidae (Nothochrysidae) of Central America. Psyche, 52, pp. 139-174 (1946). Carpenter, F. M. Revision of the Nearctic Raphidiodea (Recent and Fossil). Proc. American Acad. Arts Sci., 71, pp. 89-157, 2 pis., 13 figs. (1936). Revision of Nearctic Hemerobiidae, Berothidae, Sisyridae, Polystcechoti- dae and Dilaridae. Proc. American Acad. Arts Sci., 74, pp. 193-280, 3 pis., 75 figs. (1940). Chopard, L. Neuroptera. In Grasse, Traite de Zoologie, 9, pp. 355-407, 40 figs. (1949). Costa Lima, A. da. Neuropteros. Insetos do Brasil, 4, pp. 73-108, 34 figs. (1943). Davis, K. C. Sialididae of North and South America. Bull. New York State Mus., 68, pp. 442-487 (1903). Enderlein, G. Monographic der Coniopterygiden. Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f. Syst., 23, pp. 173-242 (1906). Coniopterygidae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc 67, 18 pp. (1908). Klassifikation der Mantispiden. Stettiner Ent. Zeit., 71, pp. 341-379 (1910). Die Klassifikation der Coniopterygiden. Arch. Klass. Phylog. Ent., 1, pp. 98-114 (1930). Esben-Petersen, E. Megaloptera. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 154, 13 pp. (1913). Hagen, H. A. Neuroptera of North America. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 4, 347 pp. (1862). Killington, F. J. Synopsis of British Neuroptera. Trans. Ent. Soc. Hampshire and South England, 1929, pp. 1-36, 6 pis., 6 figs. (1929). Monograph of British Neuroptera. I. 269 pp., 15 pis.; II. 307 pp., 15 pis. Ray Soc, London (1936-37). Generic Names of British Nemoptera, with a Check-List of Species. Generic Names of British Insects, 4, pp. 65-80 (1937). Kimmins, D. E. Revision of the Osmylid Subfamilies Stenosmylina? and Kalosmylinae. Nov. Zool., 42, pp. 165-202, 8 pis., 28 figs. (1940). Kruger, L. Beitrage zu einer Monographic der Osmyliden. Stettiner Ent. Zeitg., 75, pp. 9-130 (1914); 76, pp. 60-87 (1915). CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 213 Revision of Osmylidae. Stettiner Ent. Zeitg., 75, pp. 9-130 (1914); 76, pp. 60-87 (1915). Systematische Uebersicht der Ncuroptcren. Stettiner Ent. Zeitg., 78, pp. 116-137 (1917). Revision of Psychopsida?. Stettiner Ent. Zeitg., 83, pp. 17-48 (1922). Revision of Berothidae. Stettiner Ent. Zeitg., 83, pp. 49-88 (1922). Revision of Hemerobiidas. Stettiner Ent. Zeitg., 83, pp. 138-173 (1922). Kuwayama, S. Studies on the Dilarida: of Japan. Trans. Sapporo Nat. Hist. Soc, 8, pp. 51-83 (1921). Lacroix, J. L. Faune des Plannipennes de France. Ascalaphidae. Bull. Soc. Etude Sci. Nat. Elbeuf., 41, pp. 65-100 (1923). Lameere, A. Neuroptera. In Precis de Zoologie. Rec. Inst. zool. Torley-Rous- seau, 5, pp. 25-49, 32 figs. (1936). Lestage, J. A. Note sur les Sisyrides (Hemerobiiformes a larve aquatique). Bull. Ann. Soc. ent. Belg., 75, pp. 385-394, 1 fig. (1935). Mocsary, A. Neuroptera. Fauna Regni Hungarian, pp. 33-44 (1918). Nakahara, W. Osmylinae of Japan. Annot. Zool. Japonenses, Tokyo, 8, pp, 489-518 (1914). Navas, L. Neuropteros (s. lat.) de Espana y Portugal. Broteria, 5, 6, 7 (three parts) (1906-08). Monografia de la familia de los Dilaridos. Mem. R. Acad. Barcelona, 7, No. 17, pp. 619-671 (1909). Monografia de los Nemopteridos. Mem. R. Acad. Barcelona, 8, No. 18, pp. 1-70 (1910). Nemopteridas. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 136, 23 pp. (1913). Ascalafidos sudamericanos. Revist. Chil. Santiago, 17, pp. 41-74 (1914). Dilaridae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 156, 14 pp. (1914). Les Myrmeleonides d'Europe. Insecta, Rennes, 5, pp. 57-62 (1915). Crisopids d'Europe. Arixius Inst. Cien. Barcelona, 3, No. 2, pp. 1-98 (1915). Monografia de 1'orde dels Rafidiopters. Arch. Inst. Catalans, Barcelona, 93 pp. (1918). Monografia de los Berotidos. Mem. Acad. Cien. Zaragoza, 2, 107 pp., 44 figs. (1929). Monografia de la familia de los Sisiridos. Mem. Acad. Cienc. Zaragoza, 4, 87 pp., 40 figs. (1935). Rehn, J. W. H. Studies in North American Mantispidse. Trans. American Ent. Soc, 65, pp. 237-263, 1 pi. (1939). Ross, H. H. and T. H. Frison. Nearctic Species of Sialis. Bull. Illinois Nat. Hist. Surv., 21, pp. 57-100 (1937). Stitz, H. Neuroptera. In Tierwelt Mitteleuropas, 6, Lief. 1, pp. XIV 1-19 (1928). Tillyard, R. J. Studies in Australian, Neuroptera. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, 41, pp. 269-332 (1916). The Family Psychopsidae (Australian). Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, 43, pp. 750-786 (1918). Revision of the Family Ithonidae. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, 44, pp. 414-437 (1919). Townsend, L. H. Key to the Larvae of Certain Nearctic Neuroptera. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, 37, pp. 25-30 (1935). 214 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Weele, H. W. Ascalaphiden. Coll. Zool. Selys-Longchamps. fasc. 8, Brus- sels (1908). Megaloptera. Coll. Zool. Selys-Longchamps, fasc. 5, Brussels (1910). Withycombe, C. L. A Contribution towards a Monograph of the Indian Coniopterygidae. Mem. Dept. Agric. India, 9, pp. 1-19 (1925). ORDER MECOPTERA (PANORPATAi, PANORPlNA, MECAPTERA) Small or moderate-sized, rather slender, insects with the head nearly always prolonged downwards to form a sort of beak. Eyes large; ocelli present or absent; mandibles small. Wings usually present, almost al- ways long and narrow, similar; radius extensively branched; media and cubitus with few branches; crossveins only rarely numerous; anal area almost always very small, not separated; wing surface without scales. Antennae long, many-jointed, slender. Prothorax small, free; meso- and metathorax similar. Legs long, slender, similar, fitted for running; coxse large, pendant and approximate; tarsi five-jointed. Abdomen usually slender; cerci small; genitalia of male usually greatly swollen, forming a reflexed bulb. Metamorphosis complete, the larvae caterpillar- like. Scorpion flies. 1. Tarsi slender, filiform; the apical joint bearing two claws and not capable of folding back on the fourth 2 Tarsi each with a single claw; the apical joint modified for grasp- ing, the fifth joint folding back on the fourth; legs extremely long and slender, wings usually present. (Bittacus, cosmop.; Neobittacus, Kalobittacus, Pazius, Neotrop.; Harpobittacus, Austr.) (B1TTACUSIDA1) BITTACID^ 2. Female without an ovipositor, usually with normal wings; wings of male fully developed, rarely entirely absent (i.e. not vestig- ial) 3 Female with an ovipositor, and wings reduced to scales; wings of male reduced to stout bristles. (Boreus (Fig. 354), Holarc). BOREIDjE 3. Wing always present; in the fore wings, radial sector and media both with more than four branches; radial sector arising close to the base of the wing; media branching much before the mid- dle of the wing; wings short and broad, with rather dense vena- tion; body depressed; male genitalia simple, not forming a bulb 4 Wings usually present, rarely absent (Apteropanorpa), radial sector or media, or both with four branches or less; radial sector arising at or beyond the basal third of the wing; media branching at about the middle of the wing; wings long and slender, with CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 215 rather open venation; body more or less cylindrical; male genitalia enlarged, forming a swollen bulb. (Figs. 353, 355). PAN6RPID.E This family is divisible into three well-defined subfamilies which are accorded family rank by some workers. n" 1 ' "i ■■ Cu,+ Jl, *»' 3A 2A IA Cu 2 Ca> Mt Figs. 352-355. Mecoptera M, M > 355 352. Notiothauma, fore wing (Crampton) Notiothaumidz. 353. Panorpa, head (Lameere) Panorpidsc. 354. Boreus, male (lower figure) and female (upper figure) (Lameere) Boreidx. 355. Panorpa, fore wing (Tillyard) Panorpidae. a. First branch of cubitus in fore wing fused with the main stem of media for a greater or less distance . . . b First branch of cubitus in fore wing entirely free from the main stem of the media; media four branched in both wings; radial sector usually with more than four branches. (Panorpa, Palaearc, Am.; Panorpodes, Japan; Neopanorpa, Leptopanorpa, Indomal.; Brachypanorpa, Nearc; Apteropanorpa, Tasmania). PANORPiN^E b. Radial sector three-branched; cubitus and main stem of media of fore wing coalescent for a considerable distance; small active species. (Nannochorista, Neotrop., Austr.; Choristella, Austr.). NANNOCHORISTIN^ Radial sector four-branched; cubitus and main stem of media of 216 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology fore wing touching only at a point or for a very short distance; larger species. (Chorista, Taeniochorista, Austr.) CHOR.ISTiN.fli 4. Ocelli present; wings with very dense and irregular venation, the anal area well developed; radius and media coalescent on the basal fifth of the wing. (Fig. 352). (Notiothauma, Neotrop.). NOTIOTHAUMIDfli Ocelli absent; venation of wings more open and regular, the anal area slightly developed; radius and media not coalescent at the base of the wing. (Merope, Nearc; Austromerope, Austr.) (MER6PID/E) MEROPEID.E LITERATURE ON MECOPTERA Carpenter, F. M. Revision of Nearctic Mecoptera. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard Univ., 72, pp. 205-277 (1931). Costa Lima, A. da. Panorpatos. Insetos do Brasil, 4, pp. 1-15, 6 figs. (1943). Enderlein, G. Ueber die Phylogenie und Klassifikation der Mecopteren. Zool. Anz., 35, pp. 385-399 (1910). Esben-Petersen, P. Tables for Determination of Danish Mecoptera and Megaloptera (in Danish). Kopenhagen, Flora og Fauna, pp. 129-144 (1914); pp. 1-16,41-47 (1915). A Synonymic List of the Mecoptera. Entom. Meddel., 10, pp. 216-242 (1915). Mecoptera. Coll. Zool. Selys-Longchamps, fasc. 5 (1921). Grasse, P.-P. Mecoptera. Traite de Zoologie, 10 (1), pp. 71-124, 64 figs. (1951). Jaffuel, R. F. Mecoptera of Chile. Rev. chilena Hist. Nat., 33, pp. 537-549, 2 pis., 5 figs. (1930). Killington, F. J. A New Genus and Species of Meropeidae (Mecoptera) from Australia. Ent. Month. Mag., 69, pp. 1-4 (1933). Lameere, A. Mecoptera. In Precis de Zoologie. Rec. Inst. zool. Torley-Rous- seau, 5, pp. 5-16, 14 figs. (1936). Lestage, J. A. Pour l'histoire des Boreus (Stegopteres — Mecopteres). Ann. Soc. zool. Belg., 72, pp. 5-29, 105-125 (1941). Miyake, T Studies on the Mecoptera of Japan. Journ. Coll. Agric. Imp. Univ. Tokyo, 4, pp. 265-400 (1913). Stitz, H. Mecoptera. In Tierwelt Mitteleuropas, 6, Lief. 1, pp. XIV 19-22 (1928). Tillyard, R. J. Nannochoristidae. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, 17, pp. 284-301 (1917). ORDER TRICH6PTERA (PHRYGANOIDEA) Small to medium-sized, slender, flying insects; head freely movable, vertical, eyes prominent, ocelli three or none, mandibles vestigial or absent, palpi prominent, antennae thread-like, often very long; pro- CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 217 thorax small, free; meso- and meta thorax similar; wings more or less clothed with hairs, with many veins and a few crossveins; the hind wings often with a folded anal area; wings rarely reduced in size; legs similar, coxae pendant and approximate, tibiae always with spurs, tarsi five-jointed. Metamorphosis complete. Larvae aquatic; usually with tufted tracheal gills; more or less caterpillar-like and usually living in cases constructed of small objects spun together with silk. Caddis (or Caddice) flies; larvae called Caddis worms. Adults 1. Scutellum with its posterior portion forming a triangular, flat area with steep sides; mesonotum without warts; tibiae with one spur or none; very small species (6 mm. or less), the front wings covered with projecting, clubbed hairs; wings, especially the hind pair, with very long marginal fringe. (Fig. 359). (Hydroptila, Allotrichia, Holarc; Oxyethira, widespr.; Mortoniella, Neotrop.). HYDROPTiLIDiE Scutellum either evenly convex, without a posterior portion set off by sharp sides, or the mesonotum with warts; usually larger or much larger species; front wings without, or with solitary thick- ened and projecting hairs; marginal fringe of wings shorter than the width of the wings 2 2. Ocelli present 3 Ocelli absent 9 3. Maxillary palpi strongly hairy or scaly; tibial spurs 1-3-4 or 2-4-4 a few SERICOSTOMATID^E Maxillary palpi with only weak hairs, not scaly 4 4. Last joint of maxillary palpi divided into false ring-joints, curved and as long as the third and fourth joints together; front tibiae without or with two, three, or four spurs 5 Last joint of maxillary palpi not ringed, rarely curved, subequal to the other joints (palpi absent in some Hydropsychidae) 6 5. Hind wings not dilated, in shape similar to the fore wings. (Chi- marrha, cosmop.; Philopotamus, Holarc.) PHILOPOTAMID^E Hind wings with expanded anal angle, much wider than the fore wings. (Stenopsyche, Indomal.; Parastenopsyche, Palaearc; Pseu- dostenopsyche, Neotrop.) STENOPSYCHID^E, part 6. Front tibiae with one or no spur; middle tibiae with three or two spurs -. 7 Front tibiae with two or three spurs, middle tibiae with four spurs; maxillary palpi four- or five-jointed 8 7. Middle tibiae widened, their tarsi broadened and armed with stiff hairs (See couplet 8). (Agrypnetes, Holarc.). PHRYGAN£ID,E, part Middle tibiae simple with two or three spurs; normal front tibiae 218 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology with not more than one spur; maxillary palpi of male three- jointed, of female five-jointed, but of similar structure in the two sexes. (Anabolia, Stenophylax, Limnephilus, Halesus, Apa- tania, Holarc.) (Figs. 357, 361) LIMNEPHILID^ 8. Maxillary palpi five-jointed, the basal two joints very short and thick (Fig. 356). (Rhyacophila, Glossosoma, Agapetus, Holarc; Hydrobiosis, Psilochorema, Austr.) RHYACOPHILID^ Figs. 356-361. Trichoptera 356. Hydrobiosis, wings (Tillyard) Rhyacophilidae. 357. Limnephilus, outline. Limnephilidae. 358. Hydropsyche, wings. Hydropsychidae. 359. Allotrichia, wings. Hydroptilidx. 360. Phyllorheithrus, wings (Tillyard) Calamoceratidse. 361. Limnephilus, wings. Limnephilidae. Maxillary palpi of male four-jointed, of female five-jointed, the joints cylindrical, the second joint not short, the palpi of the two sexes similar; front tibiae with two or more spurs, middle tibiae with four spurs. (Neuronia, Agrypnia, Phryganea, Holarc). PHRYGANfclDiE 9. Hind wing distinctly concave on the apical half of its costal margin; basal half of the costal margin with a fringe of short hamuli. (Helicopsyche, Holarc.) HELICOPSYCHID^ Hind wing without hamuli, the apical half of its costal margin straight or convex 10 CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 219 10. Tibial spurs 3-4-4; maxillary palpi weakly hairy, five-jointed, the first and second joints very small, the last joint ringed and curved; antenna: thickened 11 Usually two, very rarely one, but never three, spurs on front tibiae 12 11. Mandibles robust; maxillary palpi with the second joint short. (Stenopsychodes, Austr.) (See couplet 5). STENOPSYCHID^, part Mandibles slender and sinuous; maxillary palpi with the second joint bulbously enlarged internally. (Polycentropus, Plectrocne- mia, Neureclipsis, Holarc.; Polyplectropus, Neotrop., Austr.). POLYCENTROPODID^ 12. Last joint of the five-jointed, scarcely hairy, maxillary palpi annulate and arcuate 13 Last joint of the usually strongly hairy maxillary palpi neither ringed nor curved 15 13. Mesopraescutum set off by distinct sutures. (Xiphocentron, widespr.) XIPHOCENTRONID^E Mesopraescutum fused with the scutum 14 14. First vein from the discal cell of the fore wing (anterior branch of the radial sector) forked; maxillary palpi long and thin. (Fig. 358). (Hydropsyche, Macronemum, cosmop.; Hydropsychodes, widespr.; Arctopsyche, Diplectrona, Holarc; Smicridea, Am.). (Including ARCTOPSYCHIDtf) HYDROPSYCHID^ First fork (R2) wanting in both fore and hind wings; first joint of the maxillary palpi small. (Psychomyia, Tinodes, Holarc; Lype, Metalype, Palaearc) PSYCHOMYIIDjE 15. Both median and discal cells of fore wings present and closed; maxillary palpi five-jointed (Fig. 360). (Heteroplectron, Am.; Ganonema, Am., Ind.; Anisocentropus, Holarc, Indoaustr.; Cala- moceras, Palaearc; Phylloicus, Neotrop.; Phyllorheithrus, Austr.). CALAMOCERATID,E Median cell of fore wings absent 16 16. Maxillary palpi of the male three-jointed, or very rarely one-jointed; of the female five-jointed 17 Maxillary palpi five-jointed in both sexes 19 17. Middle tibiae with four apical spurs 18 Middle tibiae with two or three apical spurs; discal cell always closed in the fore wings and open in the hind wing. (Brachycentrus, Micrasema) : BRACHYCENTRIDjE 18. Mesoscutellum with a single large, oval or rounded boss on wart-like elevation. (G6era, Silo, Pseudogoera) GOERID^E Mesoscutellum with a pair of smaller, separated bosses; middle tibiae not spinose. (Lepidostoma, Holarc; Atomyia, Atomyoides, Am.). LEPIDOSTOMATIDiE 220 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology 19. Discal cell absent in both fore and hind wings 20 Discal cell present in fore wing 21 20. Tibial spurs 2,4,4; maxillary palpi with the basal two joints very short. (Molanna, Holarc, Indomal.; Molannodes, Holarc). MOLANNIDjE Tibial spurs 2,2,4; maxillary palpi with the first joint short, the second and third of about equal length. (Beraea, Holarc; Beraeodes, Palaearc) BERiEID^E 21. Middle tibiae with two spurs; discal cell of hind wings almost always open or absent, only the upper branch of the radial sector forked, only the first apical fork present; joints of maxillary palpi uniform; antennae long and slender. (Leptocerus, CEcetis, Setodes, widespr.; Mystacides, Holarc; Leptocella, Am.; Notanatolica, Indoaustr.) LEPTOCERID^E Middle tibiae usually with four spurs; discal cell of hind wings closed, both branches of radial sector of fore wings forked, at least the first and second apical forks present; basal joint of antennae large. (Nerophilus, Nearc; Psilotreta, Holarc; Odon- tocerum, Palaearc; Marilia, Am.; Barypenthus, Neotrop.). ODONTOCERID^E Larva 1. Abdomen greatly wider than the thorax; very minute species with all three thoracic segments heavily chitinized above, living in portable silken cases which are much larger than the larvae; vegetarian HYDROPTfLID^ Abdomen not much wider than the thorax, much larger species usually with only the prothorax heavily chitinized 2 2. Anal leg with an elongate sclerite; last abdominal segment with a chitinous shield above; predatory or vegetarian. RHYACOPHiLID.E Anal leg not with an elongate sclerite; last abdominal segment with- out a chitinous shield 3 3. Mandible with numerous bristles on the outer edge; tracheal gills present along the sides of the abdomen; legs very unequal; preda- tory or vegetarian HYDROPSYCHIDjE Mandible with only two bristles on the outer edge; tracheal gills absent 4 4. Labrum soft, whitish, retractile under the edge of the clypeus. (Fig. 367) PHILOPOTAMIDjE Labrum sclerotized, yellowish or brownish 5 5. Claws of hind legs very small, those of the front and middle legs large MOLANNID.E Claws of hind legs as long as those of middle legs 6 CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 221 6. Antennae elongate, at least eight times as long as thick, inserted at the base of the mandibles; femur of hind leg divided into a short basal and long apical piece. Vegetarian species. LEPTOCfiRID^E, part Antennae much shorter and stouter, never more than three or four times as long as thick and sometimes minute 7 7. Mesonotum submembranous, with a pair of curved sclerotized bars whose convex sides lie toward the median line. LEPTOCERID^E, part Mesonotum without such thickened bars 8 362 363 JjU U 364 TL K V 367 im'ffM W 365 T\ 366 Figs. 362-367. Trichoptera, Larvx 362. Phylocentropus, tarsal claw of front leg (Krafka) Polycentropodidae. 363. Timeodes, tarsal claw (Rousseau) Psychomyiida;. 364. Psilotreta, dorsal view of metathorax showing chitinous plates. (Krafka) Odontoceridsc. 365. Leptocella, front leg. a, coxa; b, trochanter; c and d, femur. (Krafka) Leptoceridae. 366. Limnephilus, anterior view of prothorax in section showing prosternal horn (Krafka) Limnephilidae. 367. Philopotamus, larva (Rousseau) Philopotamidae. 8. Both meso- and metanotum entirely membranous, at most with only minute thickened spots. Larval case tubular, open at both ends, usually straight or but little bent, built on a spiral axis. PHRYGANEID.E Mesonotum, and usually also the metanotum with some well de- veloped thickened sclerites 9 9. Labrum with a complete transverse row of stout setae extending across its disk CALAMOCERATID,E Labrum without such a row; usually bearing six to eight large setae and small ones, irregularly placed 10 10. Anal hooks with a deeply serrate edge of comb-like teeth; larva living in a spiral case strikingly similar in form to a snail shell. HELICOPS?CHID,E 222 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Anal hooks without a comb-like edge; larval case not formed like a snail shell 11 11. Metanotum with several well developed sclerites, a large transverse one, a narrow longitudinal one on each side near the lateral mar- gin and a less clearly defined narrow transverse one near the posterior edge ODONTOCfiRID^E Metanotum of a different conformation; with no large sclerites and only a few very small poorly developed ones 12 12. Anal hooks each bearing two or three subequal, large teeth. SERICOSTOMATID^; Anal hooks each bearing a single large tooth supplemented by one or several small ones 13 13. Pronotum with a deep transverse furrow which is edged behind by a raised, carinate ridge. . .- BRACHYCENTRIDjE Pronotum of a different conformation, at most with a weakly con- cave transverse impression 14 14. Claws of hind tarsi as long as the tibiae, extremely slender. BER^ID^ Claws of hind tarsi not lengthened, very much shorter than the tibiae 15 15. Mesonotum not divided into plates, covered by a single rectangular sclerite, with at most a line of fracture along the median line 16 Mesonotum covered by four sclerites, a large anterior pair and a smaller posterior pair separated by a median and a transverse suture GOERIDiE 16. Antennae inserted very close to the eyes; first abdominal tergite smooth, without a hump LEPIDOSTOMATID^E Antennae inserted as near or nearer to the margin of the head than to the eye; first abdominal tergite with a median tubercle. Veg- etarian species LIMNEPHILID^E Pupa 1. Tip of abdomen simple, without sclerotized plates or projections, at most with only ventral membranous lobes 2 Tip of abdomen bearing paired sclerotized lobes, triangular plates or finger-like, often pointed structures 4 2. Mandibles serrate or with distinct teeth internally before the apex 3 Mandibles falcate, without teeth or serrations internally. hydropt!lid;e 3. Teeth of mandibles near the middle, or the edge serrate. RHYACOPHiLID,E Teeth of mandibles in a group near the tip . . . PHILOPOTAMID^E 4. Fifth abdominal tergite with both an anterior and posterior pair of small plates that bear small hooks 5 CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 223 Fifth tergite with only a single pair of hook-bearing plates. HYDROPSYCHID^E 5. Seventh tergite entirely membranous, without sclerotized plates ... 6 Seventh tergite with a pair of plates, bearing hooks 9 6. Processes at tip of abdomen triangular in dorsal view, sharply curved downward in lateral view BERiEIDiE Processes at tip of abdomen much longer, or not curved down- ward ' 7. First abdominal tergite without a transverse ridge or carina on its disk before apex; at least some of the plates on fifth and sixth tergites bearing only 2-3 hooks 8 First abdominal tergite with an arcuate ridge near the center; plates on fifth and sixth tergites each bearing 4-8 hooks. MOLANNID^: 8. Apical processes of abdomen narrow, finger-like, bearing long black hairs at their tips HELICOPSYCHID^ Apical processes of abdomen of a different conformation or without long hairs at tip LEPTOCERIM 9. Sides of abdomen conspicuously hairy 10 Abdomen without lateral fringe of hair; tip of abdomen bilobed and emarginate medially PSYCHOMYlID^ 10. Abdomen bearing hooks in a pair of transverse lines between the fifth and sixth tergites BRACHYCENTRID^E Hooks between fifth and sixth tergites arranged in much broader bands or forming rounded groups 11 11. Processes at tip of abdomen triangular or plate-like in dorsal view. PHRYGANEIDjE Processes at tip of abdomen usually much longer, finger-like; if not, each bears a group of very long black hairs apically 12 12. Processes at tip of abdomen short, widely separated, and bearing black spines several times as long as the processes. LEPIDOSTOMATID,E Processes either much longer or more narrowly separated 13 13. Tip of mandibles pointed, but not produced into a styliform tip 14 Tip of mandibles produced at apex into a narrow, whip-like style. ODONTOC£RID,E 14. Abdomen bare above, with isolated setae only 15 Abdomen above bearing dense patches of fine hair, forming more or less complete transverse bands CALAMOCERATID^E 15. Apical processes of abdomen each with a slender terminal appendage. SERICOSTOMATIDiE Apical processes without such an appendage 16 16. Antennae twice as long as the body, looped several times around the apical processes of the abdomen LEPTOCERID^E 224 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Antennae much shorter and not looped around the apical proc- esses 17 17. Apical processes sharply narrowed toward the tip into a sinuate, thread-like extension GOfiRID^E Apical processes not greatly narrowed at tip, not sinuate, bearing apical bristly hairs LIMNEPHfLID^E LITERATURE ON TRICHOPTERA Banks, N. Genera of Nearctic Leptoceridae. Trans. American Ent. Soc, 25, pp. 199-218 (1898). Genera of Nearctic Hydropsychidae. Trans. American Ent. Soc, 32, pp. 1-20 (1906). Genera of Nearctic Sericostomatidae. Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, 8, pp. 117-133 (1906). Classification of Nearctic Limnephilidae. Canadian Ent, 48, pp. 117- 122 (1916). Barnard, K. H. South African Trichoptera. Trans. Roy. Soc. South Africa, 21, pp. 291-394, 52 figs. (1934). Berland, L. and M. E. Mosely. Catalogue des Trichopteres de France. Ann. Soc. ent. France, 106, pp. 133-168 (1937). Betten, C, et al. Trichoptera of New York State. Bull. New York State Mus., No. 292, 576 pp., 67 pis., 61 figs. (1934). Costa Lima, A. da. Tricopteros. Insetos do Brasil, 4, pp. 109-113, 14 figs. (1943). Denning, D. G. The Hydropsychidae of Minnesota. Ent. Americana, (N.S.), 23, pp. 101-170, 5 pis. (1943). Dohler, W. Systematik und Biologie der Trichopteren. Sitzb. naturf. Ges. Leipzig, 41 (1915). Eaton, A. E. Review of Hydroptilidae. Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1873, pp. 125-151 (1873). Hagen, H. A. Phryganidarum synopsis. Verh. k. k. zool.-bot. Ges. Wien, 14, pp. 799-890 (1864). Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Phryganiden. Verh. k. k. zool.-bot. Ges. Wien, 23, pp. 377-452 (1873). Handlirsch, A. and M. Beier. Zehnte Ueberordnung der Pterygogenea: Panorpoidea. In Kukenthal, Handb. Zool., 4, Halfte 2, Lief. 6, pp. 1491— 1553, 69 figs. (1936). Hickin, N. E. Larvae of the British Trichoptera. Trans. Roy. Ent. Soc. London, 97, pp. 187-212 (1946). Pupae of the British Trichoptera. Trans. Roy. Ent. Soc. London, 100, pp. 275-289, 10 figs. (1949). Iwata, M. Trichopterous larvae from Japan. Annot. Zool. Japonenses, 11, pp. 202-233 (1927). Krafka, J. Key to the Families of Trichopterous Larvae. Canadian Ent, 47, pp. 217-225 (1915). Kuwayama, S. The Stenopsychidae of Japan. Ins. Matsumurana., 4, pp. 109— 119 (1930). CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 225 Lameere, A. Trichoptera. In Precis de Zoologie. Rec Inst. zool. Torley- Rousseau, 5, pp. 49-70, 29 figs. (1938). Lestage, J. A. Trichoptera, in Rousseau, Larves et Nymphes aquatiques des Insectes d'Europe, pp. 343-964 (1921). Catalogue des Trichopteres d'Afrique. Rev. Zool. Africaine, 6, pp. 251— 335 (1919) and Ann. Soc. Ent. Belgique, 59, pp. 130-135 (1919). Note Trichopterologique. Bull, and Ann. Ent. Soc. Belgique, 65, pp. 363-386 (1926). Lloyd, J. T. Larvae of North American Trichoptera. Bull. Lloyd Libr., Cin- cinnati, Ent. Ser., No. 1, 124 pp. (1921). Marlier, G. J. Trichopteres du Congo beige. Rev. Zool. Bot. afr., 37, pp. 64- 88, 13 figs. (1943). Martynov, A. V. Preliminary revision of Phryganeidae. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9), 14, pp. 209-224 (1924). On the family Stenopsychidse. Eos, 2, pp. 281-308 (1926). Trichoptera of China and Eastern Tibet. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1930, pp. 65-112, 1 pi., 71 figs. (1930). Trichoptera of the Amur Region. Trav. Inst. zool. Acad. Sci. URSS, 2, pp. 205-395, 198 figs. (1935). On a Collection of Trichoptera from the Indian Museum. Part 1. Rec. Indian Mus., 37, pp. 93-209, 109 figs. (1935); Part 2, ibid., 38, pp. 239- 366, 74 figs. (1936). McLachlan, R. A monographic revision and synopsis of the Trichoptera of the European fauna. London. Van Voorst (1874-80). Milne, L. J. Studies in North American Trichoptera. Three parts. 128 pp. Cambridge, Mass., privately printed (1934-36). Milne, L. J. and M. J. Arctopsychidae of Continental North America. Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc, 33, pp. 97-110, 3 pis. (1938). Milne, M. J. Immature North American Trichoptera. Psyche, 46, pp. 9-19 (1939). Morton, K. J. North American Hydroptilidae. Bull. New York State Mus., No. 86, pp. 63-75 (1905). Mosely, M. E. Trichoptera of Corsica. Eos, 6, pp. 147-184, 81 figs. (1930). Revision of Beraeinae. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (10)6, pp. 392-414 (1930). Indian Trichoptera. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 37, pp. 620-629, 5 figs. (1934); 38, pp. 123-133, 9 pis. (1935); 38, pp. 447-478, 18 pis., 16 figs. (1936); 40, pp. 486-496, 12 pis. (1938); 41, pp. 39-47, 332-339, 19 pis. (1939); 42, pp. 772-781, 12 pis. (1941). Tasmanian Trichoptera. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1936, pp. 395-424, 72 figs. (1936). Revision of the Triplectidinae, Subfamily of the Leptoceridae. Trans. Roy. Ent. Soc. London, 85, pp. 91-130, 98 figs. (1936). Trichoptera. Ruwenzori Exped. 1934-35, 3, 1-40, 3 pis., 123 figs. British Mus. (Nat. Hist.), London- (1939). British Caddis-flies, xiii + 320 pp., 631 figs., 3 pis. Geo. Routledge and Sons, Ltd., London (1939). Mosely, M. E. and D. E. Kimmins. Trichoptera of Australia and New Zea- land. 550 pp., 364 figs. British Mus. (Nat. Hist.), London (1953). Perrier, R. Trichopteres de la France. Faune de France, 3, pp. 127-150 (1934). 226 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology Ross, H. H. Trichoptera of Illinois. Bull. Illinois Nat. Hist. Surv., 23, pp. 1-326, 961 figs. (1944). Review of Nearctic Lepidostomatidae. Ann. Ent. Soc. America, 39, pp. 265-291 (1946). Tsuda, M. Untersuchungen liber die japanischen Wasserinsekten. I. Annot. Zool. Japonenses, 15, pp. 394-399, 1 pi. (1936). Ulmer, G. Trichoptera. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 60, 289 pp. (1907). Trichoptera. Siisswasserfauna Deutschlands, Lief. 5 and 6, 326 pp. (1909). Literature on Trichoptera (1910-14). Zeits. wissensch. Insektenbiol., 15 (various parts) (1919-21). Trichoptera. In Tierwelt Mitteleuropas, 6, Lief. 1, pp. XV, 1-46 (1928). Trichopteren von den Philippinen und Sunda Inseln. Treubia, 11, pp. 373-498, 147 figs. (1930). Die Trichopteren, Ephemeropteren und Plecopteren des arktischen Gebietes. Fauna arctica, 6, pp. 219-222 (1932). Trichopteren von den Sunda-Inseln. Arch. Hydrobiol., 19, Suppl., 328 pp. (1951). ORDER LEPIDOPTERA 1 (GLOSS AT A) Rather large, sometimes small, or very large insects; wings and body thickly clothed with scales that usually form a color pattern, the wings opaque, with the venation and membrane obscured by the scales; scaly covering rarely restricted to certain portions of the wings; wings very rarely absent. Antennae long, many-jointed, variously modified, filiform, pectinate or clubbed; ocelli often present. Mouthparts suctorial, fre- quently vestigial, when not in use coiled under the head; the galea of the maxillae modified into an unjointed sucking tube; mandibles absent, except in a few primitive forms; palpi usually well developed, the labial ones generally larger than the maxillary. Prothorax small; wings large, membranous, similar, the fore pair usually somewhat longer; venation complete, but not complex, few crossveins. Legs similar, tarsi ordinarily five-jointed. No cerci. Metamorphosis very great; larvae with chewing mouthparts, usually caterpillar-like, and usually with paired false-legs on some of the abdominal segments in addition to three pairs of thoracic legs; the false-legs (prolegs) usually bear distally several minute hooks (crochets); larvae almost always plant-feeders; pupae with appendages free or soldered to body, usually enclosed in a cocoon or earthen cell. Moths, Butterflies and Skippers. Adults 1. Wings absent or greatly reduced in size 153 Wings normally developed 2 1 Revised by C. L. Remington. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 227 Fore and hind wings with four or five radial veins, rarely with three, Sc and Ri separate (Fig. 374); wings of similar shape, more or less pointed at tip, with ten or more veins, the membrane with minute spines (Fig. 369); fore wings with a thumb-like lobe (jugum) at basal angle (except Neopseustis); a coiled pro- boscis never developed. (Suborder HOMONEURA) (MICRO- PTERYG1NA, JUGATE, ARCHILEP1D6PTERA, ISONEU- R1A) 3 Fore and hind wings dissimilar in shape and venation, hind wings with Sc and Ri fused at least at tip (not to be confused with R s which is usually the only free radial vein (Fig. 368)), rarely two free radial veins present, at most six veins arising from the cell; 370 2ndA ^stA 374 Figs. 368-374. Lepidoptera 368. Noctua, wings (Forbes) : Sc, subcosta, R, radius, M, media, Cu, cubitus (their branches indicated by numbers), A, 2 A, 3 A, anal veins; cell, discal cell. Noctuidae. 369. Portion of bleached wing membrane, showing attachments of three scales and numerous aculeae. 370. Danaus, head in frontal view: a, base of antenna; e, eye; p, base of proboscis. Danaidx. 371. Nymphalis, head, prothorax and parfof mesothorax (Scudder) Nymphalidx. 372. Crambus, lateral outline of body (Fernald): m, maxillary palpus; 1, labial palpus. 373. Scales from the wings of various Lepidoptera (Scudder). 374. Micropteryx (Forbes): Sc, subcosta; R, radius; M, media; Cu, cubitus; A, anal (their branches indicated by numbers); hum, humeral crossvein; udcv, upper discocellular vein (radio-medial crossvein) ; ldcv, lower disco- cellular vein; i, intercalated cell; ace. c, accessory cell. Micropterygidae. 228 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology jugum and mandibles not developed. (Suborder HETERO- NEURA) (FRENATAE, AN1SONEVRIA) 10 3. Wings usually hardly wider than the fringe of hairs on their hind margin; small species, wing-expanse up to one-half inch; jugum usually minute, frenulum present. (MICROJUGATAl, JUGO- FRENATA1) _ 4 Wings ample, fringe narrower; larger species, wing expanse about one-half to nine inches; tibial spurs usually wanting; jugum usually underlapping the hind wing, no frenulum; mouthparts (except labial palpi) vestigial, functionless. (Superfamily HEP- IALOIDEA). (MACROJUGATAi) 7 4. Middle tibiae without spurs, but with an apical group of bristles; functional, toothed mandibles present; maxillary galeae short; Sc forked near middle. (Epimartyria, N. Am.; Micropteryx ( —Erio- cephala) (Fig. 374), Holarc; Sabatinca, Austr.). (Superfamily MICROPTERYGOIDEA) (ZEUGLOPTERA). (ERIOCEPHA- LIDAE) MICROPTERYGID.E Middle tibiae with one or two spurs; mandibles vestigial or wanting; maxillary galeae long, forming a rudimentary proboscis; Sc simple or forked near tip. (Superfamily ERIOCRANlOlDEA) (DAC- N6NYPHA) ...5 5. Jugum absent; middle and hind tibiae with spurs. (Neopseiistis, India, Formosa) NEOPSEUSTIDiE Jugal lobe present; hind tibiae with or without spurs 6 6. Middle tibiae with one spur; hind tibiae with four; Sc forked near tip, at least in fore wing; jugum large, overlapping the hind wing; scales not scalloped nor coarsely striated. (Dyseriocrania, Holarc; Eriocrania, Palaearc.) ERIOCRANilDiE Middle tibiae with two spurs; hind tibiae with none; Sc simple; jugum much reduced, underlapping the hind wing; scales with scalloped border and coarse striation. (Mnesarchaea, N. Zealand). MNESARCILEID,E 7. Tibial spurs entirely absent or small and single, on middle and hind legs 8 Two apical spurs on middle tibia, four on hind tibia; Sc forked in fore wing; two or three discal cells, at least in hindwing, produced by persistence of veins Mi + 2 and M 3+ 4*, antennal segments sim- ple and hairy. (Prototheora, Metatheora, S. Afr.; Anomoses, Austr. (Fig. 377)). (ANOMOSETIDAi). prototheorid;e 8. Tibial spurs absent 9 Small single tibial spur present on middle and hind legs; Sc forked in forewing; two discal cells present; antennae simple and hairy. (Genustes, Assam) PAL^EOSfiTID^, part CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 229 9. Discal cell subdivided into three cells by veins M i+2 and M 3+4 (Fig. 375); Sc usually simple (rarely forked); antennal segments usually angular and dentate or bipectinate; wing expanse one to nine inches. (Hepialus, Cosmop.; Korscheltellus, Phimatopus, Holarc; Sthendpsis, Nearc; Triodia, Palaearc; Phassus, widespr.; Charagia, Austr.; Porina, Austr., Patagonia; Leto, S. Afr.). HEPlALIDiE Discal cell single or at most double, never subdivided by vein Mi +2 (Fig- 376); Sc forked (Palceoses) or simple (Ogygioses); antennal segments simple and hairy. (Palaeoses, Austr.; Ogygioses, Formosa) PALiEOSfcTIDiE, part Figs. 375-377. Lcpidoptera 375. Phassus, wings (Hampson) Hepialidae. 376. Palxoses, wings (Turner) Palaeosetidae. 377. Anomoses, wings (Turner) Prototheoridae. 10. Antennae simple or variously modified (Figs. 378, 379, 380), only rarely swollen at the tip, and in such cases a frenulum and usually a tympanum are present or the subcosta of hind wing is not strongly arched; most forms with a frenulum; the subcosta of the hind wing either relatively little arched at the base or there is a large area between it and the fore margin of the wing; wings at rest usually overlapping the abdomen, sloping roof-like against the sides, or horizontally outspread; body often relatively stout; ocelli often present. Moths. (HETER6CERA) 11 Antennae knobbed at the tip, or thickened a little before the tip (Figs. 431, 432), without pectinations, projecting processes or conspicuous arrangements of hairs along the shaft; hind wings without a frenulum (except Euschemon), but with the Sc strongly arched forward at the base; tympanum absent; proboscis well- developed; the wings usually erect when at rest; no ocelli; nearly all diurnal. Butterflies and Skippers. (RHOPAL6CERA) .143 11. Wings, especially the hind ones, usually deeply cleft, or divided 230 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology into plume -like divisions (Figs. 384, 385); legs very long. Plume moths 12 Wings entire, not cleft nor divided into finger-like divisions, rarely (Gelechiidae) the fore wings moderately cleft 14 12. Wings divided into two to four divisions 13 Each wing divided into six plumes; small, silvery white moths. (Orneodes, widespr.) (Fig. 384) ORNEODID^ Figs. 378-385. Lepidoptera 378. Plumose antenna of moth (Duncan). 379. Pectinate antenna of moth (Duncan). 380. Melittia, head, in lateral view (Beutenmiiller) ^Egeriidae. 381. Bembecia, middle leg (Beutenmiiller) Mger'ndx. 382. Melittia, wings (Beutenmiiller) ^Egeriidae. 383. Pterophorus, wings (Berlese) Pterophoridx. 384. Orneodes, wings (Berlese) Orneodidae. 385. Platyptilia, wings (Fernald) Pterophoridae. 13. Fore wings divided into two plumes, rarely four, hind wings into three; double series of large, divergent scales along underside of cubital vein of hind wing; small, delicate moths, usually prettily colored. (Oxyptilus, Platyptilia, cosmop.; Pterophorus, widespr.) ^ (Figs. 383, 385, 404). (ALUCttlD/E) PTEROPHORID.E Each wing divided into two plumes. (Cenoloba, Indomal., Austr.) (See couplet 39) OXYCHIROTID^, part 14. Underside of hind wing with a double series of enlarged and di- vergent scales along the cubital vein; tibiae exceptionally long, thin and with long spurs. (Agdistis, Palsearc, Ethiop.). PTEROPHORID^E, part Underside of wings without such specialized scales 15 CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 231 15. Hind wings usually in large part transparent and devoid of scales, except on margins and veins; fore wing narrow, at least four times as long as wide; inner margin of fore wing and costal margin of hind wing each with a row of recurved, interlocking spines; Sc of hind wings close to cell and to next vein, somewhat hidden in a fold and apparently absent; frenulum well devel- oped; ocelli and proboscis present; antennas usually dilated and tufted at tip; wasp-like, day-flying moths (Figs. 380, 381, 382). Clear-wing moths. (Paranthrene, widespr.; Ramosia, Nearc; Trochilium, Holarc, Ethiop.; Melittia, ^Egeria, cosmop.). (SESl- ID/E) jEGERIIDjE Wings scaled throughout, or if clear, the fore wings are triangular; wings not interlocking by series of spines on both fore and hind wings; Sc of hind wing present (except Euchromiidae), usually noticeable, though sometimes close to or in part fused with R 16 16. Antennae thin, swollen at tip to form a more or less distinct club, as in the butterflies, or even recurved at tip, as in the skippers; tympanum absent; frenulum present 17 Antennae variously modified, if swollen subapically or toward the middle they gradually taper on distal portion, or tympanum pres- ent 19 17. Fore wing with some branches of R stalked; frenulum well devel- oped in both sexes 18 Fore wing with all veins arising from discal cell, medial stem reduced; both wings with first anal vein lacking; eyes not ciliated; male alone with frenulum. (See couplet 143). (Euschemon, Austr.) HESPERIID^E, part 18. Fore wings with M2 arising midway between Mi and M3, or closer to Mi; hind wings with first A wanting; chaetosema present; ocelli absent; proboscis present. African. (Apoprogenes). APOPROGfiNID^ Fore wings with M 2 arising nearer M 3 than Mi (if M 2 and M 3 are stalked, cf. Ctenuchidae, couplet 75); chaetosema absent; ocelli present CASTNlIDyE a. Fore wings with first A present, discal cell closed; proboscis devel- oped. (Castnia, Neotrop.; Synemon, Austr.) CASTNIlN^E Both wings with first A reduced; discal cell open; proboscis vestig- ial. (Tascina (=Neocdstnia), Indomal). (NEOCASTNlIDsE). TASCINIIN,E 19. Hind wings with three anal veins (if less than three anals, tiny species with narrow wings, the hind pair with reduced venation and bearing a long fringe of hairs on the hind margin almost as wide as, or wider than, the wing, and the tibial spurs more than twice the width of the tibiae); fore wings usually with first 232 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology anal vein complete, i.e. usually two anal veins reaching the margin 20 Hind wings with two anal veins, rarely with one, in addition to a possible unthickened fold in the membrane, or in the Australian genus Oxychirota both wings lack all anals; wings almost never very narrow, the hind wing not more than half longer than wide, except rarely in large species when a tail-like projection is developed, and never with the fringe as wide as the wing; fore wings usually with but one complete anal vein, when accessory cell is present it is not completely contiguous with the discal cell (if accessory cell is completely contiguous refer to couplet 97, Cecidosetidae) 38 20. Hind wings with veins Sc + Ri and R s widely separate beyond discal cell 21 Hind wings with veins Sc-f-Ri and R 8 fused or very closely parallel for a greater or less distance between the end of the discal cell and the tip of the wing, the base of R sometimes evanescent. (PYRALfDIM:, slat.) 68 21. Hind wings ribbon-like, with a long apical tail (Fig. 386). (Himan- topterus, Semioptila, African). HIMANTOPTERINjE; ZYCENIDiE Wings normal 22 22. Hind wings with veins Sc+Ri and R s fusing to near the end of the discal cell, or fusing beyond the middle of the cell, or these veins coincident throughout 23 Hind wings with veins Sc-f-Ri and R s separate from the base, or fusing only a short distance along the discal cell, the fusion located at the base or before the middle of the cell, or some- times connected by a bar 24 23. Proboscis well developed; chaetosema present; wings thinly scaled, translucent; hind wings with basal part of R represented as a spur in the cell, or entirely lost. (Acoloithus, Pyromorpha, Am.) (see couplet 41). {ZYG/ENID/E, of authors). PYROM6RPHID^E, part Proboscis obsolete; chaetosema present; hind wings with Sc-f-Ri and R s separate in part; wings heavily and loosely clothed with soft scales, mixed with curly hair in the northern species; hind wings (in American species) with R free at base. Flannel moths. (Norape, Podalia, Aides, Xenarchus, Somabrachys, Lagoa, Mega- lopyge). {LAGblD/E) MEGALOPfGIDiE Proboscis and palpi absent; chaetosema absent; veins Sc+Ri and R B coincident throughout. (Eulophonotus, Ethiop.). EULOPHONOTIN^; C6SSID^ 24. The fringe on the anal angle of the hind wings not or but slightly 25. 26. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 233 longer than elsewhere; tibial spurs at most about as long as the width of the tibiae 25 The fringe on the anal angle of the hind wings distinctly longer than elsewhere; tibial spurs more than twice the width of the tibiae; when the accessory cell is present its longest side is con- tiguous with the discal cell. (TINEOIDEA) 85 Fore wings with accessory (radial) cell 26 Radial cell not formed 30 Proboscis vestigial 27 Mouthparts usually developed, with scaled proboscis; tibial spurs long; female usually with an anal tuft; small to minute moths. (TINEOIDEA) 85 Figs. 386-390. Lepidoptera 386. Himantopterus, hind wing (Westwood) Zygamidae. 387. Prionoxystus, wings (Comstock and Needham) Cossidae. 388. Bombyx, wings. Bombycidae. 389. Metarbela, wings (Hampson) Cossidae. 390. Simaethis, wings (Spuler) Glyphipterygidae. 27. Tibial spurs short or wanting; large moths, except Epipyropidae . . .28 Hind tibiae with two pairs of spurs; small species, 9—18 mm.; R 4-branched; $ wingless. (Talaeporia, Old World, Solenobia, Holarc; Luffia, Palaearc.) TAL^PORIlN^; PSfCHID,E 28. Fore wings with some branches of R stalked; accessory cell ex- tending beyond the discal cell; body heavy, or wings ample . . .29 Fore wings with no stalked radial branches; accessory cell not ex- 234 bulletin: museum of comparative zoology tending beyond the discal cell; antennae bipectinate in both sexes; small moths, larvae living as external parasites on Fulgoridae and Cicadidae. (Epipyrops, Indoaustr., Am., Japan) EPIPYROPID^ 29. Wings strong and more or less lanceolate; body heavy and surpassing the hind wings; median cell and strong medial stem nearly always present in discal cell of each wing; larvae borers. Carpenter moths COSSIM; a. Fore wing with first anal vein well developed b Fore wing with first anal vein reduced c b. Hind wing with Sc entirely fused with the cell and R. (See couplet 23) EULOPHONOTlN,E Hind wing with Sc entirely separate from the cell and R. (Fig. 387). (Zeuzera, Palsearc, Ind.; Cossus, cosmop.; Prionoxystus, Am.; Phragmatcecia, Palaearc). (ZEUZERID/E, HYP6PTID/E). cossin^; c. Frenulum present. Restricted to Madagascar. (Chrysotypus, Argyro- typus). (CHRYSOTYPIDtf) ARGYROTYPlN^ Frenulum usually absent; small, brightly colored species. Tropicopol- itan. (Metarbela, Teragra, Selagena, Lepidarbela). (ARBELID/E, HOLLANDID/E, TERAGRID/E) METARBELIN^ Wings ample, the subtriangular fore wings about half longer than wide and with the tip more or less acute, the hind pair with nearly straight end; abdomen not extending beyond the hind wings; mainly South American. (Dalcera, Acraga, S. Am.; Dal- cerides, Ariz.). {ACRAGID/E). DALCERIN^; EUCLEIDiE 30. Frenulum absent or vestigial, humeral angle of hind wing more or less expanded; M 2 of fore wings arising midway between Mi and M 3 or closer to Mi; chaetosema absent; moderately large moths with broad hind wings 31 Frenulum present (if absent in moths of small size with narrow and more or less oblong wings, refer to couplet 77) 33 31. Fore wings with radial branches R2+3+4+5 united on a common stalk; hind wings with Sc and R connected by a bar (Fig. 388). (See couplet 56) BOMBYCIDyE Fore wing with radial branches R2 + 3, R4 + 5 stalked independently of R1+2; hind wings with Sc and R free beyond base 32 32. The five branches of R very long, occupying more than one-third the apical edge of the wing, only R 3 and R 4 on a short stalk, the other radial branches free; wings large. (Chrysopoloma, Ectropa, Ethiop.). {ECTR6PID/E) CHRYSOPOLOMID^ Radial branches occupying one-fourth of the apical edge of the fore wings, R2 + 3, or R1 + 5, tip of fore wings extended and rather CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS 235 pointed, the apical margin sinuate. American, mostly Neotropical. (See couplet 52) MIMALLONID^ 33. Fore wings with M 2 arising midway between Mi